Development and Learning
AP Psychology Topic 3 12:18 English narration · English + 中文 subtitles burned in
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Transcript
A four-year-old picks up a heavy glass marble and tries to bounce it on the floor.
一个四岁的孩子拿起一颗很重的玻璃弹珠，想把它在地上拍弹起来。
He is not being silly.
他不是在犯傻。
He had a rule for round things: round things bounce.
他有一条关于圆东西的规则：圆的东西会弹。
That rule is a schema, and this whole unit is about how rules like it get built, changed, and learned.
那条规则就是图式， 而整个单元讲的就是这样的规则如何被建立、改变和习得。
The exam does not want the definition. It wants the join between them.
考试要的不是定义，而是定义与情境之间的连接。
Developmental psychology studies how people change across the lifespan.
发展心理学研究人在一生中如何变化。
Two questions run through the whole unit.
整个单元贯穿两个问题。
Is change continuous, gradual and smooth, or discontinuous, in stages?
变化是连续的、逐渐而平滑的，还是不连续的、分阶段的？
And is a trait stable across life, or does it change?
一个特质在一生中是稳定的，还是会改变？
Researchers answer these with two designs.
研究者用两种设计来回答。
A cross-sectional study compares different age groups at one time.
横断研究在同一时间比较不同年龄组。
It is fast, but differences may come from the groups' different generations.
它快，但差异可能来自这些组所属的不同世代。
A longitudinal study follows the same people over years.
纵向研究跟着同一批人走很多年。
It is slower, but it shows real change within a person.
它更慢，但能看出一个人内部真正的变化。
Physical development can be disrupted before birth by teratogens, harmful agents such as alcohol, and by maternal illness or genetic mutations.
出生前，身体发育会被致畸物打断，比如酒精这类有害物质， 也会被母亲的疾病或基因突变打断。
Infant development follows the same general order everywhere, though the rate varies.
婴儿的身体发育在各地顺序大体相同，只是快慢不同。
Newborns show reflexes that indicate healthy development, such as the rooting reflex: turning towards a touch on the cheek.
新生儿会表现出标志健康发育的反射，比如觅食反射： 脸颊被碰到时会把头转过去。
The visual cliff experiment shows that infants perceive depth early.
视崖实验表明，婴儿很早就有深度知觉。
A critical period is a window in which a particular experience has an unusually strong effect.
关键期是一段窗口，在这段时间里某一种经历的作用特别强。
A sensitive period is a softer version of the same idea.
敏感期是同一个想法的较软版本。
Keep critical period for the narrow window.
窄窗口用关键期这个词。
Adolescence brings the growth spurt and puberty, including primary and secondary sex characteristics.
青春期会带来发育突增和青春发育期，包括第一性征和第二性征。
Adulthood then levels off, and later declines, including menopause.
成年期随后趋于平稳，再往后下降，女性还包括更年期。
Sex refers to biological characteristics.
生理性别指的是生物学特征。
Gender refers to the roles and expectations a society attaches to them.
社会性别指的是社会给这些特征附上的角色和期待。
Gender roles are learned through socialization: family, school, peers, and media all teach what behaviour is expected.
性别角色是通过社会化学会的：家庭、学校、同伴和媒体 都会教人什么行为是被期待的。
Sexual orientation describes a person's enduring pattern of attraction.
性取向描述一个人持久的吸引模式。
The exam asks how sex and gender influence socialization and development, not for any evaluation of individuals.
考试问的是生理性别和社会性别如何影响社会化和发展， 而不是要你评价任何个人。
Piaget said thinking changes in kind, not only in amount.
皮亚杰说思维改变的是"种类"，而不只是"数量"。
Two processes do the work.
有两个过程在起作用。
Assimilation fits the new thing into a rule you already have — the marble becomes a ball.
同化把新东西装进你已有的规则里——弹珠成了球。
Accommodation changes the rule when the new thing will not fit — some round things do not bounce.
顺应在新东西装不进去时改变规则——有些圆的东西不会弹。
Each stage is marked by an achievement.
每个阶段都由一项成就标记。
Object permanence: a hidden thing still exists.
客体永久性：藏起来的东西依然存在。
Conservation: pouring juice into a taller glass does not make more juice.
守恒：把果汁倒进更高的杯子并不会变多。
And later, abstract reasoning about things that are not in front of you.
再后来是抽象推理，能够思考眼前没有的东西。
In an answer, match the stage to the achievement, never to an age.
写答案时，要把阶段与成就对上，而不是与年龄对上。
Cognitive development, for Piaget, is four stages, each defined by what the child can newly do.
对皮亚杰来说，认知发展是四个阶段，每个阶段由孩子新能做到的事来定义。
Sensorimotor: the child learns through senses and action, and develops object permanence.
感知运动阶段：孩子通过感觉和动作学习，并发展出客体永久性。
Preoperational: the child uses symbols and pretend play, but shows egocentrism, difficulty taking another view, and lacks conservation.
前运算阶段：孩子会用符号、会假装游戏，但表现出自我中心， 很难站到别人的视角，也还没有守恒。
Concrete operational: the child reasons logically about concrete things and gains conservation.
具体运算阶段：孩子能对具体事物做逻辑推理，并获得守恒。
Formal operational: abstract and hypothetical reasoning becomes possible.
形式运算阶段：抽象和假设推理成为可能。
Match the stage to the achievement, never to an age.
把阶段与成就对上，而不是与年龄对上。
Vygotsky saw children as social learners.
维果茨基把孩子看作社会学习者。
The zone of proximal development is the gap between what a child can do alone and what they can do with help.
最近发展区就是孩子独自能做的，和在帮助下能做的，两者之间的空隙。
Scaffolding is the support that closes that gap.
支架就是填上那个空隙的支持。
Adult cognition changes too: reasoning speed declines while accumulated knowledge does not.
成人的认知也会变：推理速度下降，而积累的知识不会。
Dementia is a decline beyond normal ageing.
痴呆是超出正常老化的衰退。
Language development follows a common sequence: nonverbal gestures, then cooing, babbling, the one-word stage, and telegraphic speech, two-word combinations.
语言发展有一条共同的顺序：先是非言语手势，然后是咕咕声、咿呀语、 单词阶段，再是电报式语言，也就是两个词的组合。
Children generalise rules before they master exceptions, which produces overgeneralization, saying goed instead of went.
孩子会在掌握例外之前先推广规则，于是出现过度规则化， 把 went 说成 goed。
That is evidence they are learning rules, not just copying.
这证明他们在学规则，而不只是在模仿。
Social and emotional development starts with attachment, the emotional bond between infant and caregiver, studied with the strange situation procedure.
社会与情绪发展从依恋开始，也就是婴儿与照料者之间的情感联结， 用陌生情境程序来研究。
The reunion is the discriminating moment, not the separation.
判别的时刻是重聚，不是分离。
Styles include secure attachment and insecure forms: avoidant, anxious, and disorganized.
风格包括安全型依恋，以及不安全的形式：回避型、焦虑型和混乱型。
Separation anxiety is heightened distress when away from a caregiver.
分离焦虑是离开照料者时特别强烈的痛苦。
Studies with monkeys showed that infants prefer contact comfort over food, which changed how attachment was understood.
对猴子的研究表明，婴儿更偏好接触安慰而不是食物， 这改变了人们对依恋的理解。
Research identifies parenting styles.
研究区分出几种教养方式。
Authoritarian: high demands, low warmth.
专制型：高要求，低温暖。
Authoritative: high demands, high warmth.
权威型：高要求，高温暖。
Permissive: low demands, high warmth.
放任型：低要求，高温暖。
Ecological systems theory describes development as nested environments, from the immediate family outwards to culture.
生态系统理论把发展描述成一层套一层的环境， 从最近的家庭向外一直到文化。
Peer relationships develop through parallel play and pretend play, and adolescents rely on peers more as they age.
同伴关系从平行游戏和假装游戏发展而来， 青少年随着年龄增长会更依赖同伴。
Erikson proposed a stage theory of psychosocial development, in which each stage poses a conflict to resolve.
埃里克森提出心理社会发展的阶段理论，每个阶段都有一个需要解决的冲突。
The adolescent stage is identity versus role confusion.
青少年阶段是同一性与角色混乱。
Adverse childhood experiences, or A.C.E.s, affect later relationships and health.
童年不良经历会影响后来的关系和健康。
The behavioral perspective explains behaviour through learning rather than through thought, and it starts here.
行为主义视角用学习而不是用思维来解释行为，而它就从这里开始。
Classical conditioning links two stimuli.
经典条件作用把两个刺激联系起来。
Before learning, food makes a dog salivate all by itself, and a bell does nothing.
学习之前，食物本身就会让狗分泌唾液，而铃声什么也不会引起。
Pair the two often enough, with the bell just before the food.
让两者反复配对，铃声刚好出现在食物之前。
After learning, the bell alone makes the dog salivate.
学习之后，光是铃声就能让狗分泌唾液。
The bell has become a conditioned stimulus and the salivation a conditioned response.
铃声成了条件刺激，唾液分泌成了条件反应。
The thing to notice for the exam is that the response is involuntary.
考试要注意的是：这个反应是不随意的。
Nobody decides to salivate.
没有人"决定"要分泌唾液。
The learner does nothing; the association is between two events in the world.
学习者什么也没做，联结是在世界上的两个事件之间形成的。
Name the parts, and say the abbreviations, because that is how the paper prints them.
先把各部分的名字说对。
An unconditioned stimulus, U C S, naturally produces an unconditioned response, U C R.
无条件刺激，缩写U C S，会自然产生无条件反应，缩写U C R。
Food causes salivation.
食物引起唾液分泌。
A neutral stimulus paired with the unconditioned stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus, producing a conditioned response.
与无条件刺激配对的中性刺激会变成条件刺激，产生条件反应。
Acquisition depends on the order and timing of the pairing.
习得取决于配对的顺序和时间。
Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
当条件刺激不再与无条件刺激配对时，就会消退。
Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of an extinguished response.
自发恢复是已消退的反应再次出现。
Generalization is responding to similar stimuli.
泛化是对相似刺激也做出反应。
Stimulus discrimination is responding only to the exact conditioned stimulus.
刺激辨别是只对那个确切的条件刺激做出反应。
In higher-order conditioning an established conditioned stimulus acts as an unconditioned stimulus for a new one.
在高级条件作用里，一个已经建立的条件刺激会当作新联结的无条件刺激。
Taste aversion shows that some associations are learned in a single trial because they aided survival.
味觉厌恶表明，有些联结一次就能学会，因为它们曾经帮助生存。
Habituation is a diminished response to a repeated stimulus.
习惯化是对重复刺激的反应变弱。
Operant conditioning links behaviour to consequence, and it is where most marks are lost.
操作性条件作用把行为与结果联系起来，这里也是丢分最多的地方。
The trick is to ask two questions, not one.
诀窍是问两个问题，而不是一个。
First: did the behaviour go up or down?
第一：行为是变多了还是变少了？
Second: was something added or removed?
第二：是加入了什么，还是拿走了什么？
Positive reinforcement adds something pleasant and the behaviour goes up.
正强化加入令人愉快的东西，行为变多。
Negative reinforcement removes something unpleasant and the behaviour still goes up — taking painkillers removes the pain, so you take them again.
负强化拿走令人不快的东西，行为同样变多—— 吃止痛药拿走了疼痛，所以你下次还会吃。
Punishment makes it less likely, whether it adds something unpleasant or removes something wanted.
惩罚让行为变少，无论它是加入了不快的东西，还是拿走了想要的东西。
Ask the first question first.
先问第一个问题。
If the behaviour went up, it is reinforcement, whatever it felt like.
如果行为变多了，那就是强化，不管当时感觉如何。
Reinforcement can arrive on a schedule, and the schedule changes how stubborn the behaviour becomes.
强化可以按照一种程序到来，而程序决定了行为有多顽固。
A fixed schedule pays after a set number or a set time, so the learner can predict it.
固定程序在固定的次数或固定的时间之后给予强化，学习者可以预测。
A variable schedule pays unpredictably.
变动程序则是不可预测地给予强化。
Of the four — fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval and variable-interval — variable ratio is the one to remember: reward after an unpredictable number of responses.
四种程序——固定比率、变动比率、固定时距、变动时距——里，要记住的是变动比率： 在不可预测的反应次数之后给予奖励。
A ratio schedule counts responses; an interval schedule counts time, so a fixed-interval schedule pays for the first response after a set wait and a variable-interval schedule varies that wait.
比率程序数的是反应次数，时距程序数的是时间， 所以固定时距程序在等待固定的一段时间后，为第一个反应给予强化， 而变动时距程序则让这段等待时间变化。
It produces the highest rate and it resists extinction best, because a run of nothing is exactly what the learner expects.
它产生最高的反应率，也最能抵抗消退， 因为一连串没有奖励，正是学习者预期中的事。
That is why a slot machine is hard to walk away from.
这就是为什么老虎机让人难以离开。
If a question describes gambling-like persistence, name variable ratio.
如果题目描述的是赌博式的顽固坚持，就写变动比率。
A primary reinforcer satisfies a biological need.
原级强化物满足生物学需要。
A secondary reinforcer, such as money, is learned.
次级强化物，比如钱，是学来的。
Shaping rewards successive approximations of a target behaviour.
塑造就是奖励逐步接近目标行为的那些动作。
Continuous reinforcement rewards every response and produces fast learning but fast extinction.
连续强化每次反应都给奖励，学得快，消退也快。
Partial reinforcement is more stubborn.
部分强化更顽固。
Superstitious behavior arises when a consequence reinforces an unrelated action.
迷信行为出现在一个结果强化了无关动作的时候。
Learned helplessness develops when an organism repeatedly cannot escape an aversive event and stops trying.
习得性无助是在生物反复逃不出厌恶事件之后，它就不再尝试。
There is a third way to learn, and it needs no reinforcement at all.
还有第三种学习方式，而且它完全不需要强化。
Observational learning is acquiring a behaviour by watching someone else do it.
观察学习就是通过看别人做，来习得一种行为。
The learner has never performed the behaviour and has never been rewarded for it, and still performs it correctly the first time.
学习者从来没有做过这个行为，也从来没有因此得到过奖励， 却在第一次尝试时就做对了。
That is what the exam wants you to notice: reinforcement alone cannot explain it, because there was none.
这正是考试要你注意的地方： 单靠强化解释不了它，因为根本没有强化。
Social learning theory shows that behaviour can be learned by observation and modeling, the basis of the Bobo doll findings on imitated aggression.
社会学习理论表明，行为可以通过观察和榜样示范来习得， 这就是波波玩偶研究里模仿攻击的基础。
Insight learning is a sudden solution with no gradual conditioning.
顿悟学习是突然出现的解法，没有逐步的条件作用。
Latent learning is learning that occurs without reinforcement and stays hidden until there is a reason to show it, demonstrated by rats forming a cognitive map of a maze.
潜伏学习是在没有强化时发生、一直藏着，直到有理由表现出来的学习， 大鼠在迷宫里形成认知地图就是例子。
The 2024 exam described Gavin, a preschooler at a science museum.
二零二四年的试卷写了加文，一个在科学博物馆的学前儿童。
He grabbed a large glass marble and tried to bounce it.
他抓起一颗大玻璃弹珠，想把它拍弹起来。
Later he told his grandmother about a picture he had drawn.
后来他又跟奶奶讲自己画的一幅画。
Students had to explain how Piaget's concept of assimilation could relate to the marble, and how egocentrism could relate to how he talked to his grandmother.
学生要解释皮亚杰的同化如何对应这颗弹珠， 以及自我中心如何对应他跟奶奶说话的方式。
A full-mark answer defines the term and ties it to the specific detail.
满分答案既要定义术语，又要接到具体细节上。
Gavin already had a schema for balls, which bounce.
加文已经有一个关于球的图式，球会弹。
He treated the marble as a ball and tried to bounce it.
他把弹珠当成球，并试着拍弹它。
The definition alone earns nothing, and so does retelling the story.
光写定义不得分，复述故事也不得分。
The mark is the join between them.
分数在两者之间的连接上。
Six things to take with you.
带走六点。
One: a longitudinal study follows the same people over years; a cross-sectional study does not.
第一：纵向研究跟着同一批人走很多年；横断研究不是这样。
Two: a critical period is the narrow window; a sensitive period is the softer one.
第二：关键期是窄窗口；敏感期是较软的那个。
Three: match a Piaget stage to its achievement, and name Vygotsky's zone of proximal development plus scaffolding.
第三：把皮亚杰的阶段与成就对上，并说出维果茨基的最近发展区加上支架。
Four: attachment is judged at the reunion, not the separation.
第四：依恋看的是重聚，不是分离。
Five: classical links two stimuli; for operant, ask whether the behaviour went up.
第五：经典条件作用联系两个刺激；操作性条件作用先问行为有没有变多。
Six: variable ratio resists extinction; watching someone else needs no reward at all.
第六：变动比率最能抵抗消退；看别人做完全不需要奖励。
Now try the practice questions below.
现在去做下面的练习题。