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限定论证、句法与规范

AP 英语语言与写作 · 第 7 主题

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Unit 7: Qualifying Arguments, Syntax, and Conventions

Most students assume a stronger-sounding claim scores better. The opposite is true, and it is easy to see why. An unqualified claim is easy to defeat with one…

英文讲解 · 内嵌中英文字幕

讲义 词汇表 词汇测验 2
7.1

修辞情境的构成要素
大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

RHS-1
Individuals write within a particular situation and make strategic writing choices based on that situation.

1.A
Reading – Identify and describe components of the rhetorical situation: the exigence, audience, writer, purpose, context, and message.

  • RHS-1.I The introduction of an argument introduces the subject and/ or writer of the argument to the audience. An introduction may present the argument’s thesis. An introduction may orient, engage, and/or focus the audience by presenting quotations, intriguing statements, anecdotes, questions, statistics, data, contextualized information, or a scenario.
  • RHS-1.J The conclusion of an argument brings the argument to a unified end. A conclusion may present the argument’s thesis. It may engage and/or focus the audience by explaining the significance of the argument within a broader context, making connections, calling the audience to act, suggesting a change in behavior or attitude, proposing a solution, leaving the audience with a compelling image, explaining implications, summarizing the argument, or connecting to the introduction.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

第七单元带着你此时积累的经验回到引言与结论,随后转向最能把合格写作与出色写作区分开的两件事:限定(qualification)与句子结构。

关于引言与结论,CED 的表述没有变——引言把主题与写作者介绍给受众;结论把论证带向统一的收束,并可以呈现论点、说明其重要性,或把论证置于更广阔的语境中。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
qualification 限定 xiàn dìng
练习卷
7.2

撰写引言与结论
大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

RHS-1
Individuals write within a particular situation and make strategic writing choices based on that situation.

2.A
Writing – Write introductions and conclusions appropriate to the purpose and context of the rhetorical situation.

  • RHS-1.I The introduction of an argument introduces the subject and/ or writer of the argument to the audience. An introduction may present the argument’s thesis. An introduction may orient, engage, and/or focus the audience by presenting quotations, intriguing statements, anecdotes, questions, statistics, data, contextualized information, or a scenario.
  • RHS-1.J The conclusion of an argument brings the argument to a unified end. A conclusion may present the argument’s thesis. It may engage and/or focus the audience by explaining the significance of the argument within a broader context, making connections, calling the audience to act, suggesting a change in behavior or attitude, proposing a solution, leaving the audience with a compelling image, explaining implications, summarizing the argument, or connecting to the introduction.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

到这一阶段,有用的提升是让结论做 CED 所允许的那些工作。结论可以:

  • 说明论证的重要性——为什么它成立这件事重要;
  • 把它置于更广阔的语境中——它属于哪个更大的问题;
  • 以其最终的、此刻已被赢得的形式呈现论点。

第三项在考场上最有力:用你在引言里不可能使用的措辞重述论点,因为那时论证尚未作出。

练习卷
7.3

主张的限定方式
大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

CLE-1
Writers make claims about subjects, rely on evidence that supports the reasoning that justifies the claim, and often acknowledge or respond to other, possibly opposing, arguments.

3.C
Reading – Explain ways claims are qualified through modifiers, counterarguments, and alternative perspectives.

  • CLE-1.V A lack of understanding of the complexities of a subject or an issue can lead to oversimplification or generalizations.
  • CLE-1.W Because arguments are usually part of ongoing discourse, effective arguments often avoid expressing claims, reasoning, and evidence in absolute terms.
  • CLE-1.X Writers may strategically use words, phrases, and clauses as modifiers to qualify or limit the scope of an argument.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

  • 对某一主题复杂性的理解不足会导致过度简化或以偏概全(oversimplification or generalisation)。
  • 由于论证通常是持续讨论的一部分,有效的论证往往避免以绝对措辞表述主张(absolute terms)。
  • 写作者可以策略性地使用作为修饰成分的词语、短语与分句,来限定或限制论证的范围。

这对许多学生而言是反直觉的,他们以为听起来更强硬的主张能得更高分。事实恰恰相反:未加限定的主张一个反例就能击倒,而经过限定的主张则能挺住。学校应当禁止手机招来的是一个例外。学校应当在教学时段限制手机使用,因为注意力的代价在这一时段是可测量的则不会。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
oversimplification or generalisation 过度简化与以偏概全 guò dù jiǎn huà yǔ yǐ piān gài quán
练习卷
7.4

限定主张
大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

CLE-1
Writers make claims about subjects, rely on evidence that supports the reasoning that justifies the claim, and often acknowledge or respond to other, possibly opposing, arguments.

4.C
Writing – Qualify a claim using modifiers, counterarguments, or alternative perspectives.

  • CLE-1.V A lack of understanding of the complexities of a subject or an issue can lead to oversimplification or generalizations.
  • CLE-1.W Because arguments are usually part of ongoing discourse, effective arguments often avoid expressing claims, reasoning, and evidence in absolute terms.
  • CLE-1.X Writers may strategically use words, phrases, and clauses as modifiers to qualify or limit the scope of an argument.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

工具是些被有意使用的普通词语:在多数情况下、在 X 成立之处、对这一人群而言、除非、就……而言。每一个都把主张收窄到证据实际覆盖的范围。

限定也是思辨深度那一分最常奖励的东西。一个先表明立场、继而显示自己知道这一立场的限度、并仍然为之辩护的学生,恰恰展示了评分标准所要寻找的控制力。

有限定的主张不是更弱的主张——而是你能撑满全文的主张
探索

Place each claim on the qualification scale

Each step left is stronger and easier to refute; each step right is safer and worth less. Aim for the scoped position.

练习卷
7.5

分句与观点之间的关系
大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

STL-1
The rhetorical situation informs the strategic stylistic choices that writers make.

7.B
Reading – Explain how writers create, combine, and place independent and dependent clauses to show relationships between and among ideas. (Note: Students should be able to read and analyze these complexities but are not expected to write with them on timed essays.)

  • STL-1.G Writers express ideas in sentences. Sentences are made up of clauses, at least one of which must be independent.
  • STL-1.H The arrangement of sentences in a text can emphasize particular ideas.
  • STL-1.I Subordination and coordination are used to express the intended relationship between ideas in a sentence.
  • STL-1.J Writers frequently use coordination to illustrate a balance or equality between ideas.
  • STL-1.K Writers frequently use subordination to illustrate an imbalance or inequality between ideas.
  • STL-1.L The arrangement of clauses, phrases, and words in a sentence can emphasize ideas.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

连接观念的两种方式,而它们的含义不同
CED 说得很明确:并列表示均衡,从属表示不均衡
  • 写作者用句子表达观念,句子由分句构成,其中至少一个必须是独立分句(independent clause)。
  • 文本中句子的排布可以突出特定观念。
  • 从属与并列(subordination and coordination)表达句内观念之间的预期关系。
  • 写作者用并列来体现观念之间的均衡或对等。
  • 写作者用从属来体现观念之间的不均衡或不对等。
  • 句内分句、短语与词语的排布可以突出观念。

中间那两句使句子结构变得可分析,而不再只是装饰。这项措施代价高昂,而且它奏效了把成本与效果当作对等项。尽管这项措施代价高昂,它还是奏效了则使成本从属——它依然为真,但已被排在结果之下。同样的事实,不同的论证。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
independent 独立分句 dú lì fēn jù
Subordination and coordination 从属与并列 cóng shǔ yǔ bìng liè
练习卷
7.6

写出清晰的句子
大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

STL-1
The rhetorical situation informs the strategic stylistic choices that writers make.

8.B
Writing – Write sentences that clearly convey ideas and arguments.

  • STL-1.G Writers express ideas in sentences. Sentences are made up of clauses, at least one of which must be independent.
  • STL-1.H The arrangement of sentences in a text can emphasize particular ideas.
  • STL-1.I Subordination and coordination are used to express the intended relationship between ideas in a sentence.
  • STL-1.J Writers frequently use coordination to illustrate a balance or equality between ideas.
  • STL-1.K Writers frequently use subordination to illustrate an imbalance or inequality between ideas.
  • STL-1.L The arrangement of clauses, phrases, and words in a sentence can emphasize ideas.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

用于自己的写作:先确定关系,再选择表达这一关系的结构。如果两个观念确实分量相当,就把它们并列。如果其中一个是让步、另一个是你的要点,就让让步从属——并把你的要点放进独立分句,重心落在那里。

三种错误都关乎句子在哪里结束——分数给的是修改
探索

Identify the sentence fault, then the repair

All three faults are about where a sentence ends. Naming one is worth nothing — the mark is for the repair.

练习卷
7.7

语法规范与表达清晰度
大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

STL-1
The rhetorical situation informs the strategic stylistic choices that writers make.

7.C
Reading – Explain how grammar and mechanics contribute to the clarity and effectiveness of an argument.

  • STL-1.M Grammar and mechanics that follow established conventions of language enable clear communication.
  • STL-1.N Writers use punctuation strategically to demonstrate the relationships among ideas in a sentence.
  • STL-1.O Punctuation (commas, colons, semicolons, dashes, hyphens, parentheses, quotation marks, or end marks) advances a writer’s purpose by clarifying, organizing, emphasizing, indicating purpose, supplementing information, or contributing to tone.
  • STL-1.P Some design features, such as italics or boldface, create emphasis.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

  • 遵循既定惯例的语法与格式(grammar and mechanics)使清晰的交流成为可能。
  • 写作者策略性地使用标点来显示观念之间的关系。
  • 标点——逗号、冒号、分号、破折号、连字符、括号、引号、句末符号——推进论证。
  • 版面手段如斜体或粗体制造强调。
练习卷
7.8

语法与书写规范
大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

STL-1
The rhetorical situation informs the strategic stylistic choices that writers make.

8.C
Use established conventions of grammar and mechanics to communicate clearly and effectively.

  • STL-1.M Grammar and mechanics that follow established conventions of language enable clear communication.
  • STL-1.N Writers use punctuation strategically to demonstrate the relationships among ideas in a sentence.
  • STL-1.O Punctuation (commas, colons, semicolons, dashes, hyphens, parentheses, quotation marks, or end marks) advances a writer’s purpose by clarifying, organizing, emphasizing, indicating purpose, supplementing information, or contributing to tone.
  • STL-1.P Some design features, such as italics or boldface, create emphasis.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

可考的框架是:标点是论证性的,而不只是正确与否的问题。冒号承诺其后的内容将解释其前的内容。分号断言两个独立陈述属于一处。破折号打断,而这一打断本身就是要点。

**Worked example(一项真实的 AP 考试任务)。**一篇修辞分析选文写道:*「这一项目很受欢迎;按照该部门自己提出的每一项标准,它也是无效的。」低分答案会说"写作者使用了分号"。能得分的答案会解释这一结构:「分号把两项事实呈现为对等而同时的,而不是呈现为对照,因此读者无法把这一失败当作对'受欢迎'的反驳打发掉——两者只是同时为真。随后的插入成分『按照该部门自己提出的每一项标准』在『无效』一词到来之前,先切断了该部门的退路。」*这就是把句法当作论证来分析。

每个标点都是对句子后半部分的一个承诺
练习卷
7.8

考试技巧
  • **限定你的主张。**绝对化的主张一个反例就被击倒,经过限定的则不会。
  • 限定是通往思辨深度那一分最可靠的路径。
  • **并列 = 均衡。从属 = 不均衡。**CED 就是这么说的,而这使句法变得可分析。
  • 把你的要点放进独立分句。让步属于从属分句。
  • 标点推进论证。冒号解释,分号以对等身份连接,破折号打断。
  • 绝不要只写"写作者使用了分号",而不说明它断言了什么关系。

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