引言、结论与展开

AP 英语语言与写作 · 第 4 主题

训练

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讲义词汇表词汇测验 1 词汇测验 2

4.1

修辞情境的构成要素

大纲

Enduring Understanding	Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
RHS-1 Individuals write within a particular situation and make strategic writing choices based on that situation.	1.A Reading – Identify and describe components of the rhetorical situation: the exigence, audience, writer, purpose, context, and message.	RHS-1.I The introduction of an argument introduces the subject and/ or writer of the argument to the audience. An introduction may present the argument’s thesis. An introduction may orient, engage, and/or focus the audience by presenting quotations, intriguing statements, anecdotes, questions, statistics, data, contextualized information, or a scenario. RHS-1.J The conclusion of an argument brings the argument to a unified end. A conclusion may present the argument’s thesis. It may engage and/or focus the audience by explaining the significance of the argument within a broader context, making connections, calling the audience to act, suggesting a change in behavior or attitude, proposing a solution, leaving the audience with a compelling image, explaining implications, summarizing the argument, or connecting to the introduction.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

第四单元处理文本中写作者选择最为显眼的两个位置——开头与结尾——并补全 CED 关于展开方法的清单。

论证的引言(introduction)向受众介绍主题与/或写作者。它可以为读者定向、确立促因与语境,并吸引注意。
结论(conclusion)把论证带向统一的收束。它可以呈现论证的论点、说明其重要性,或把论证置于更广阔的语境中。

要注意第二句中的那个词:统一。结论不是概括;它是各部分被显示为同一个论证的那一刻。

这两段都不是为了"有"而写——要问读者从中得到了什么

词汇表训练

英文	中文	拼音
introduction	引言	yǐn yán
conclusion	结论	jié lùn

练习卷

4.2

撰写引言与结论

大纲

Enduring Understanding	Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
RHS-1 Individuals write within a particular situation and make strategic writing choices based on that situation.	2.A Writing – Write introductions and conclusions appropriate to the purpose and context of the rhetorical situation.	RHS-1.I The introduction of an argument introduces the subject and/ or writer of the argument to the audience. An introduction may present the argument’s thesis. An introduction may orient, engage, and/or focus the audience by presenting quotations, intriguing statements, anecdotes, questions, statistics, data, contextualized information, or a scenario. RHS-1.J The conclusion of an argument brings the argument to a unified end. A conclusion may present the argument’s thesis. It may engage and/or focus the audience by explaining the significance of the argument within a broader context, making connections, calling the audience to act, suggesting a change in behavior or attitude, proposing a solution, leaving the audience with a compelling image, explaining implications, summarizing the argument, or connecting to the introduction.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

在考试中,两者都值得写好,但都不值得写长。一条有用的纪律:

用两三句话为主题定位并陈述一个可辩护的论点的引言就是完整的。在限时写作中,其余的一切都更适合花在证据与评述上。
说出论证由此推出什么——它的重要性,或更广的含义——的结论,比复述各段的结论做得更多。

最弱的结论是把文章已经说过的内容再列一遍。读者刚刚读过。要说的是它意味着什么,或者它要求什么。

练习卷

4.3

识别总体论点

大纲

Enduring Understanding	Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
CLE-1 Writers make claims about subjects, rely on evidence that supports the reasoning that justifies the claim, and often acknowledge or respond to other, possibly opposing, arguments.	3.B Reading – Identify and describe the overarching thesis of an argument, and any indication it provides of the argument’s structure.	CLE-1.O A thesis statement may preview the line of reasoning of an argument. This is not to say that a thesis statement must list the points of an argument, aspects to be analyzed, or specific evidence to be used in an argument.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

CED 在这里加了一条精确的补充:论点陈述可以预示论证的推理线索——紧接着又说,这并不是说论点陈述必须罗列理由。

这一双重表述值得记住,因为两种错误都很常见。什么也不预示的论点会让文章失去形状。机械罗列三条理由的论点并非必需,而且常常写出一篇僵硬、无法展开的文章。

练习卷

4.4

撰写论点句

大纲

Enduring Understanding	Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
CLE-1 Writers make claims about subjects, rely on evidence that supports the reasoning that justifies the claim, and often acknowledge or respond to other, possibly opposing, arguments.	4.B Writing – Write a thesis statement that requires proof or defense and that may preview the structure of the argument.	CLE-1.O A thesis statement may preview the line of reasoning of an argument. This is not to say that a thesis statement must list the points of an argument, aspects to be analyzed, or specific evidence to be used in an argument.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

用于自己的写作,其实用版本是:

论点必须可辩护。这一点没有商量余地,而它就是论点那一分的全部。
它可以指出推理的形状。当这一形状确实起结构作用时就这么做;不要把它当作套路。
它应当具体到足以约束后文。宽泛到任何一段都能归入其下的论点,并没有在指挥这篇文章。

三个问题,按此顺序,在动笔之前先跑一遍

探索

Run the three thesis gates in order

A sentence can be beautifully arguable and still answer a prompt you were not set — which is why the order matters.

练习卷

4.5

识别展开方法

大纲

Enduring Understanding	Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
REO-1 Writers guide understanding of a text’s lines of reasoning and claims through that text’s organization and integration of evidence.	5.C Reading – Recognize and explain the use of methods of development to accomplish a purpose.	REO-1.G Methods of development are common approaches writers frequently use to develop and organize the reasoning of their arguments. A method of development provides an audience with the means to trace a writer’s reasoning in an argument. REO-1.K When developing ideas through comparison-contrast, writers present a category of comparison and then examine the similarities and/or differences between the objects of the comparison. When analyzing similarities and/or differences, like categories of comparison must be used. REO-1.L When developing ideas through a definition or description, writers relate the characteristics, features, or sensory details of an object or idea, sometimes using examples or illustrations.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

五种方法,以及每一种适合做的工作 — 选择推理所需要的方法,而不是题目所暗示的方法

第三单元讲了叙述与因果。第四单元补上其余:

通过比较对照(comparison-contrast)展开:写作者先确立一个比较的范畴,再在其中考察相似与差异。学生会漏掉的正是那个范畴——没有说明比较基础的对照,只是两段并排的描写。
通过下定义或描写(definition or description)展开:写作者陈述对象的特征与感官细节(characteristics, features, or sensory details)。

下定义比它看上去更有力量。一场取决于某个词含义的论证——什么才算成功、算公平、算进步——是一场已经被移到真正可以决胜之地的论证。

词汇表训练

英文	中文	拼音
comparison-contrast	比较对照	bǐ jiào duì zhào
definition or description	定义与描写	dìng yì yǔ miáo xiě

练习卷

4.6

运用展开方法

大纲

Enduring Understanding	Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
REO-1 Writers guide understanding of a text’s lines of reasoning and claims through that text’s organization and integration of evidence.	6.C Writing – Use appropriate methods of development to advance an argument.	REO-1.G Methods of development are common approaches writers frequently use to develop and organize the reasoning of their arguments. A method of development provides an audience with the means to trace a writer’s reasoning in an argument. REO-1.K When developing ideas through comparison-contrast, writers present a category of comparison and then examine the similarities and/or differences between the objects of the comparison. When analyzing similarities and/or differences, like categories of comparison must be used. REO-1.L When developing ideas through a definition or description, writers relate the characteristics, features, or sensory details of an object or idea, sometimes using examples or illustrations.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

这一选择是修辞性的。要问的是:受众在接受你的主张之前需要什么?

他们需要看见它,而障碍在于抽象:用描写。
他们接受事实,却不接受其间的联系:用因果。
他们在套用错误的标准:用下定义。
参照熟悉之物他们能判断得更好:用比较对照。
他们需要感受那个情境:用叙述。

Worked example(一项真实的 AP 考试任务)。第三题的论证题要求你就某项常见做法是否有益表明立场。一个诉诸描写的学生写出了一段生动却无人争议的文字。而一个诉诸下定义的学生写道:*「这一做法是否有益,取决于我们把什么算作益处。如果益处指的是可测量的短期收益,这一做法是成功的;如果它指的是持久的能力,同样的证据显示它是失败的。」*这一段把论证转移到了证据真正能作出裁决的地方——这正是思辨深度那一分所要奖励的动作。

先读中间一栏:方法取决于这一段要证明什么

探索

Choose the method from the job

The method follows from what the paragraph has to prove, not from the order things happened in.

练习卷

4.6

考试技巧

引言要短而承重:为主题定位,陈述可辩护的论点,继续往下写。
只作复述的结论得分最少。要说出论证意味着什么或要求什么。
论点可以预示推理;它不必罗列理由。两种错误都很常见。
**比较需要说明范畴。**没有范畴,你写的就是两段描写,而不是一次比较。
在术语可争议的论证题中,下定义是可用的最强动作。
从受众需要什么来挑选展开方法,而不是从题目暗示什么来挑。

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