Using Comparison and Definition · 运用比较与定义
The move that wins an argument about words
- Many arguments are not disagreements about facts at all.
- They are disagreements about what a word covers — fair, effective, necessary.
- Defining the term is how you move the argument to ground where evidence decides.
If “fair” means three different things, an argument that never defines it has three games sharing one ball.
赢下一场关于词语之争的动作
- 许多论争根本不是关于事实的分歧。
- 它们是关于一个词涵盖什么的分歧——公平、有效、必要。
- 为该术语下定义,正是你把论证移到证据能作出裁决之地的办法。
如果“公平”有三种意思却始终不下定义，大家便像在共用一个球、各打各的比赛。
Writing a comparison
- State the category in the first sentence, before either subject appears.
- Then measure both on it, in the same order, in the same terms.
- End by saying what the comparison decided — a comparison that decides nothing was decoration.
写一次比较
- 在第一句就说明范畴,在任何一个对象出现之前。
- 然后按同样的顺序、用同样的措辞在这一范畴上衡量两者。
- 最后说出这次比较裁决了什么——什么也没裁决的比较只是装饰。
In a comparison paragraph, the category of comparison should appear... · 在比较段落中，比较类别应出现在……
The category tells the reader what both subjects are about to be measured on. · 类别告诉读者两个主体将在什么维度上进行衡量。
Writing a definition
- Name the term and say what it must include for the argument to work.
- Show why a looser definition would let something through that should not pass.
- Then apply your definition to the case — that application is where the marks are.
写一次定义
- 点出该术语,并说明为使论证成立它必须包含什么。
- 说明更宽松的定义会放过某些本不该通过的东西。
- 然后把你的定义用到具体个案上——分数就在这一应用之中。
Is this definition usable? · 这个定义可用吗？
Sort each definition by whether an opponent could accept it. · 根据反对者是否能接受该定义对其进行分类。
After stating a definition, spend your marks on ____ it to the case. · 陈述定义后，应将分数花在____将其应用于案例上。
The definition alone is a claim; applying it is the development. · 定义本身是一个论点；应用它才是展开。
A definition written to suit your conclusion is visible. A reader who can see the term was shaped to produce the answer discounts the answer — so the test is whether an opponent could accept the definition before seeing where it leads.
为迎合自己结论而写的定义是看得出来的。读者一旦看出这个术语是为产出某个答案而被塑造的,就会对那个答案打折扣——因此检验标准是:对手在看到它将导向何处之前,是否也能接受这个定义。
A definition written to suit your conclusion is usually invisible to a reader. · 为迎合结论而写的定义通常对读者而言是不可见的。
It is · 它是 visible · 可见, and it costs credibility — the test is whether an opponent could accept it first. · 它是可见的，并会损害可信度——检验标准是反对者是否能在事前接受它。
Match each fault to its diagnosis. · 将每个缺陷与其诊断相匹配。
Each fault produces a paragraph that looks like development and settles nothing. · 每个缺陷都会产生一个看似展开实则未裁决任何东西的段落。
Two ways definition goes wrong
- Defining a word nobody disputes wastes a paragraph — check that the term is genuinely contested.
- Defining a term to suit your conclusion is visible to a reader and costs credibility.
- A good definition is one an opponent could accept before seeing where it leads.
下定义出错的两种方式
- 为一个无人争议的词下定义会浪费一段——先确认该术语确实存在争议。
- 为了迎合自己的结论而下定义,读者看得出来,而且会损害可信度。
- 好的定义,是对手在看到它将导向何处之前也能接受的定义。
Select all · 所有 the checks this lesson gives. · 选出本课提供的所有检查项。
Length is never a check; what the paragraph settled always is. · 长度永远不是检查项；段落裁决了什么才是。
Checking your paragraph
- Comparison: cover one subject. Does the category still make sense on its own? It should.
- Definition: would your opponent accept this definition in the abstract? If not, it is loaded.
- Both: what did this paragraph settle that the previous one had left open?
检查你的段落
- 比较:遮住其中一个对象。范畴本身是否仍然说得通?应当说得通。
- 下定义:你的对手在抽象层面上会接受这个定义吗?如果不会,那它就是被做过手脚的。
- 两者皆然:这一段解决了上一段留下的什么悬而未决之处?
"Call a programme effective if the people it was designed for finish it." An opponent can accept that before knowing the figures. Applied to the case, it does the work — and the argument was won on the definition, not on a dispute about numbers.
"如果一个项目为之设计的那些人完成了它,就称它为有效。"对手在不知道数据之前就能接受这一点。把它用到具体个案上,它就发挥了作用——而这场论证是靠定义赢下的,不是靠对数字的争辩。
State the category before either subject in a comparison, measure both on it, and say what it decided. For a definition, check the term is genuinely contested, keep it one an opponent could accept, and spend your marks on applying it to the case.
在比较中,先于任何对象说明范畴,在其上衡量两者,并说出它裁决了什么。就下定义而言,先确认该术语确实存在争议,让它保持为对手也能接受的样子,并把分数花在把它应用于具体个案上。