The three approaches
International Baccalaureate · IB Diploma · Psychology · HL Topic 1 10:35 English narration · English + 中文 subtitles burned in
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Every June about 13 million students in China sit the gaokao.
每年六月，中国约有一千三百万学生参加高考。
In the weeks before it, many sleep badly, lose their appetite and forget things they knew well.
考前几周，许多人睡不好、没胃口，还会忘记本来熟悉的东西。
Why?
为什么？
A biologist points to the stress hormone cortisol. A cognitive psychologist asks how each student thinks about the exam. A sociocultural psychologist looks at families, class rankings and the belief that one exam decides a life.
生物学家指向压力激素皮质醇；认知心理学家问每个学生怎样看待这场考试；社会文化心理学家关注家庭、班级排名，以及“一考定终身”的信念。
All three are right, at different levels.
三者都对，只是解释的层面不同。
This topic teaches three approaches.
本主题讲三种取向。
The biological approach uses studies such as Maguire, Kosfeld and Caspi. The cognitive approach uses Bartlett, Tversky and Kahneman, and Loftus and Palmer. The sociocultural approach uses Tajfel, Bandura and Asch.
生物学取向使用马圭尔、科斯费尔德和卡斯皮等研究；认知取向使用巴特利特、特沃斯基和卡尼曼，以及洛夫特斯和帕尔默；社会文化取向使用泰弗尔、班杜拉和阿希。
Paper 1 Section A asks two short-answer questions, four marks each, from two of the three approaches.
试卷一 A 部分有两道简答题，每题四分，出自三种取向中的两种。
A strong answer names the idea, describes one study with its result, and links it back to the behaviour in the question.
好的答案要说出概念，描述一项研究及其结果，再联系回题目中的行为。
The biological approach explains behaviour by the brain, chemical messengers and genes.
生物学取向用大脑、化学信使和基因来解释行为。
Localisation of function means that some brain areas do special jobs.
功能定位指某些脑区承担特定的工作。
After an operation in 1953, the patient H.M. lost both hippocampi.
1953 年手术后，病人 H.M. 失去了两侧海马体。
He could still hold a conversation, but he could not form new long-term memories of events.
他仍能与人交谈，却无法形成关于事件的新长时记忆。
So the hippocampus seems to be needed to store new memories.
因此，储存新记忆似乎需要海马体。
A single case is rich in detail, but it may not apply to other people.
单一个案细节丰富，但未必适用于其他人。
Neuroplasticity is the brain's ability to change its structure with experience.
神经可塑性是大脑随经验改变结构的能力。
Maguire and colleagues scanned the brains of 16 London taxi drivers and 50 other men.
马圭尔等人扫描了 16 名伦敦出租车司机和 50 名其他男性的大脑。
The drivers' posterior hippocampus was larger, and larger still in drivers with more years in the job.
司机的后部海马体更大，且从业年限越长越大。
But this is a correlation, so by itself it cannot show cause.
但这是相关，单凭它无法证明因果。
Draganski and colleagues solved the problem with an experiment.
德拉甘斯基等人用实验解决了这个问题。
People who learned to juggle for three months grew more grey matter in an area that tracks movement, and it shrank again when they stopped.
学习抛接杂耍三个月的人，在追踪运动的脑区长出更多灰质；停止练习后，灰质又缩小了。
Because the researchers caused the change, this supports a causal link.
因为变化是研究者引起的，这支持了因果关系。
Psychologists study the living brain with brain imaging.
心理学家用脑成像研究活的大脑。
MRI shows structure, the size and shape of areas, but no activity.
核磁共振成像显示结构，即脑区的大小和形状，但不显示活动。
fMRI shows which areas are active from blood flow, but it is slow, and activity is not cause.
功能性核磁共振根据血流显示哪些脑区活跃，但速度慢，而且活跃不等于原因。
EEG records electrical activity very precisely in time, but it is poor at showing where.
脑电图能非常精确地记录电活动的时间，但难以显示位置。
Neurotransmitters carry signals between neurons across the synapse: serotonin is linked to mood, and dopamine to reward.
神经递质跨过突触在神经元之间传递信号：血清素与情绪有关，多巴胺与奖赏有关。
Hormones travel in the blood and act more slowly.
激素经血液运送，作用较慢。
Cortisol is released under stress; in the short term it gives the body energy, but long-term high cortisol can harm memory.
压力下会释放皮质醇，短期内为身体提供能量，但长期偏高会损害记忆。
Oxytocin is linked to trust and bonding.
催产素与信任和情感联结有关。
Here is a model 4-mark answer.
这是一个四分的范例答案。
Oxytocin is a hormone that may increase trust.
催产素是一种可能增加信任的激素。
Kosfeld and colleagues gave male students a nasal spray of oxytocin or a placebo, then they played a money game as investors.
科斯费尔德等人让男大学生用鼻喷剂吸入催产素或安慰剂，然后作为“投资者”玩一个金钱游戏。
45 percent of the oxytocin group gave all their money to the other player, against 21 percent of the placebo group.
催产素组有百分之 45 的人把全部钱交给对方，安慰剂组只有百分之 21。
So oxytocin makes people more willing to accept social risk.
所以催产素使人更愿意承担社会风险。
Later studies did not always find this effect, so a longer answer would discuss that.
后来的研究并不总能重复这一效应，长答案中应讨论这一点。
Genes can make a behaviour more likely, but they do not decide it.
基因能让某种行为更可能出现，但不能决定它。
Twin studies compare identical twins, who share almost all their genes, with non-identical twins, who share about half.
双胞胎研究比较几乎共享全部基因的同卵双胞胎，和大约共享一半基因的异卵双胞胎。
If identical twins are more alike, genes probably play a part.
如果同卵双胞胎更相似，基因可能起了作用。
A study of about 15,000 Swedish twin pairs estimated that genes explain about 38 percent of the differences in risk of major depression.
一项针对约一万五千对瑞典双胞胎的研究估计，基因能解释重度抑郁风险差异的约百分之 38。
Genes and environment work together.
基因和环境共同起作用。
Caspi and colleagues followed 847 people in New Zealand from birth.
卡斯皮等人从出生起追踪了新西兰的 847 人。
People with a short version of a serotonin gene were more likely to become depressed, but only after several stressful life events.
携带血清素基因短版本的人更容易患抑郁症，但只是在经历多次压力性生活事件之后。
This is a gene–environment interaction.
这就是基因与环境的交互作用。
The cognitive approach studies mental processes we cannot see, so it builds models, and a good model makes predictions that an experiment can test.
认知取向研究看不见的心理过程，所以要建立模型；好的模型能做出可以用实验检验的预测。
The multi-store model says memory has three stores in a line.
多重存储模型认为记忆有三个依次排列的存储。
Attention moves information from sensory memory into short-term memory, and rehearsal moves it into long-term memory.
注意把信息从感觉记忆送入短时记忆，复述再把它送入长时记忆。
Case H.M. supports separate short-term and long-term stores.
H.M. 个案支持短时和长时存储是分开的。
The working memory model splits short-term memory into parts.
工作记忆模型把短时记忆分成几个部分。
The phonological loop holds sounds, the visuospatial sketchpad holds pictures, the central executive controls attention, and the episodic buffer links them.
语音回路存放声音，视空间画板存放图像，中央执行系统控制注意，情景缓冲器把它们联系起来。
It predicts that two tasks clash only when they use the same part: you cannot easily repeat a word list while you count aloud, but you can while you picture a map.
它预测：只有使用同一部分的两项任务才会冲突；边大声数数边复述单词表很难，但边想象地图边复述就可以。
A schema is an organised set of knowledge about something.
图式是关于某事物的一套有组织的知识。
Schemas help us understand quickly, but they also change what we remember.
图式帮助我们快速理解，但也会改变我们记住的内容。
In Bartlett's study, English students read a Native American story, The War of the Ghosts, and retold it several times.
在巴特利特的研究中，英国学生阅读一个美洲原住民故事《鬼魂之战》，并反复复述。
Their versions got shorter and changed strange details into familiar ones: a canoe became a boat.
他们的版本越来越短，陌生细节变成了熟悉的东西：独木舟变成了小船。
This is reconstructive memory: we rebuild a memory instead of playing it back like a video.
这就是重构性记忆：我们重建记忆，而不是像录像一样回放。
Kahneman describes two systems: System 1 is fast and automatic, System 2 slow and effortful.
卡尼曼描述了两个系统：系统 1 快速自动，系统 2 缓慢费力。
System 1 uses short cuts called heuristics, which can produce a cognitive bias.
系统 1 使用称为启发式的捷径，可能产生认知偏差。
Anchoring means a first number pulls a later estimate towards it.
锚定是指第一个数字把之后的估计拉向它。
Tversky and Kahneman spun a wheel that stopped at 10 or at 65, then asked what percentage of United Nations countries were African.
特沃斯基和卡尼曼转动一个停在 10 或 65 的轮盘，然后问联合国成员国中非洲国家占百分之几。
People who saw 10 gave a typical answer of 25 percent; people who saw 65 gave 45 percent.
看到 10 的人典型回答是百分之 25，看到 65 的人回答百分之 45。
Shops use the same effect with a high original price.
商店标出很高的“原价”也是利用这种效应。
Loftus and Palmer showed 45 students films of car crashes, then asked how fast the cars were going when they hit each other, changing the verb.
洛夫特斯和帕尔默给 45 名学生看车祸影片，然后问两车相撞时车速多快，只改变问题里的动词。
Smashed gave a mean of 40.8 miles an hour, and contacted gave 31.8.
用“猛撞”得到的平均值是每小时 40.8 英里，用“接触”得到 31.8。
One week later, 32 percent of the smashed group said they had seen broken glass, though there was none, against 14 percent of the hit group.
一周后，“猛撞”组有百分之 32 的人说看到了碎玻璃，其实并没有；“撞”组只有百分之 14。
A leading question can change the memory itself.
诱导性问题能改变记忆本身。
But students watching a film do not feel the fear of a real crash.
但看影片的学生感受不到真实车祸的恐惧。
Brown and Kulik said that shocking events create a flashbulb memory, vivid and detailed.
布朗和库利克认为，震惊的事件会形成闪光灯记忆，生动而详细。
Neisser and Harsch asked students how they heard about the Challenger space shuttle disaster the day after it happened, then again about two and a half years later.
奈瑟和哈希在挑战者号航天飞机失事的第二天，询问学生是怎样得知消息的，大约两年半后再问一次。
Many later accounts were quite different, but people were still very sure of them.
许多后来的叙述差别很大，但人们仍然非常确信。
Emotion seems to raise confidence more than accuracy.
情绪提高的似乎更多是信心，而不是准确性。
The sociocultural approach explains behaviour by the groups and culture around us.
社会文化取向用我们周围的群体和文化来解释行为。
Social identity theory says part of our self-esteem comes from the groups we belong to.
社会认同理论认为，我们的部分自尊来自所属的群体。
In Tajfel's minimal group study, Bristol schoolboys were split into groups by which of two painters they preferred.
在泰弗尔的最简群体研究中，布里斯托尔的男生按偏好两位画家中的哪一位被分组。
They still gave more points to their own group, and often chose the biggest gap between the groups over the most points for their own.
他们仍然给自己组更多分数，而且常常宁愿让两组差距最大，也不选让自己组得分最多的方案。
Belonging was enough to create in-group favouritism.
仅仅属于一个群体，就足以产生内群体偏好。
Social learning theory says we learn by watching a role model and copying behaviour that is rewarded.
社会学习理论认为，我们通过观察榜样、模仿受到奖励的行为来学习。
In Bandura's Bobo doll study, 72 children aged 3 to 6 watched an adult either attack an inflatable doll or play quietly.
在班杜拉的波波玩偶研究中，72 名 3 到 6 岁的儿童观看一名成人攻击充气玩偶或安静地玩。
Children who saw the aggressive model copied many of the same attacks.
看到攻击性榜样的儿童模仿了许多同样的攻击动作。
Learning needs four steps: attention, retention, reproduction and motivation.
学习需要四步：注意、保持、再现和动机。
A school wants students to recycle more. Use social learning theory. For attention, choose models students notice, such as popular older students. For retention, show the same short routine every week. For reproduction, put the bins next to the classroom door so it is easy to copy. For motivation, praise the models in front of others, so students see the behaviour rewarded.
学校希望学生多回收。 运用社会学习理论：注意，选学生会关注的榜样，比如受欢迎的高年级学生；保持，每周展示同样简短的流程；再现，把回收箱放在教室门边，便于模仿；动机，当众表扬榜样，让学生看到这种行为受到奖励。
A social norm is an unwritten rule about how a group behaves, and conformity means changing your behaviour to match a group.
社会规范是关于群体如何行为的不成文规则，从众指改变自己的行为以符合群体。
In Asch's study, students judged which of three lines matched a test line, after several actors gave the same wrong answer.
在阿希的研究中，几名实验助手先给出同样的错误答案，然后学生判断三条线中哪条与标准线一样长。
About one third of the answers followed the wrong group, and three quarters of the students conformed at least once.
约三分之一的回答跟随了错误的群体，四分之三的学生至少从众一次。
A review of 133 studies in 17 countries found more conformity in collectivist cultures than in individualist ones.
一项涵盖 17 个国家 133 项研究的综述发现，集体主义文化中的从众多于个人主义文化。
Culture is the shared beliefs, norms and practices of a group; children learn their own by enculturation.
文化是群体共享的信念、规范和习俗；儿童通过濡化习得自己的文化。
When people move to a new culture they go through acculturation.
人们迁入新文化时会经历文化适应。
Berry describes four strategies: integration keeps the first culture and joins the new one; assimilation joins only the new one; separation keeps only the first; marginalisation keeps neither.
贝里描述了四种策略：整合，保留原有文化并融入新文化；同化，只融入新文化；分离，只保留原有文化；边缘化，两者都没有。
Integration is usually linked to the least stress.
整合通常与最小的压力相联系。
Good answers often use more than one approach.
好的答案常常使用不止一种取向。
Depression has a biological side, genes and serotonin; a cognitive side, negative thinking; and a sociocultural side: poverty, loneliness and how a culture talks about mental illness.
抑郁症有生物学的一面：基因和血清素；有认知的一面：消极思维；也有社会文化的一面：贫困、孤独，以及一种文化如何谈论心理疾病。
Caspi's study shows two of these working together.
卡斯皮的研究展示了其中两者共同起作用。
The concept of perspective asks you to say which approach a claim comes from, and which approaches it leaves out.
“视角”这个概念要求你说明一个观点来自哪种取向，又忽略了哪些取向。
Check yourself.
自我检查。
For the biological approach: H.M., the taxi drivers and the jugglers, brain imaging, the messengers, Kosfeld, twins and Caspi.
生物学取向：H.M.、出租车司机和杂耍研究、脑成像、化学信使、科斯费尔德、双胞胎研究和卡斯皮。
For the cognitive approach: the two memory models, Bartlett, anchoring, Loftus and Palmer, and flashbulb memories.
认知取向：两个记忆模型、巴特利特、锚定、洛夫特斯和帕尔默，以及闪光灯记忆。
For the sociocultural approach: Tajfel, Bandura, Asch and Berry.
社会文化取向：泰弗尔、班杜拉、阿希和贝里。
And for any 4-mark question: name the idea, describe one study with its result, and link it back.
对任何四分题：说出概念，描述一项研究及其结果，并联系回题目。