GAC016 Matemática III: Cálculo e Aplicações Avançadas

An average speed does not tell you every instantaneous speed, and a signed displacement does not always equal total distance. Calculus makes those distinctions precise.

GAC016 develops differentiation 微分, integration 积分 and their applications. Your centre's current brief determines assessment tasks and grading requirements; these original practice sheets do not establish a university credit decision or an official examination pattern.

State the independent variable, domain and units. The notation $dy/dx$ is a derivative with respect to x; a dot over y normally denotes a derivative with respect to time. Those notations describe the same operation only when their independent variables agree.

For applications, describe what a rate or accumulated value means in the stated model. A negative volume-change rate of 3 cubic centimetres per second means volume is falling at that rate, rather than that the volume itself is negative.

A derivative 导数 is a rate of change: how fast $y$ changes as $x$ changes. Geometrically it is the gradient of the tangent 切线斜率 at a point.

That limit is the definition. Differentiation from first principles 从定义求导 uses the difference quotient for nonzero h and then takes its limit. Unequal one-sided limits, as for $|x|$ at zero, prevent a derivative even when the function is continuous.

• A power rule 幂法则, on a domain where the power is differentiable: if $y = x^n$ then $\dfrac{dy}{dx} = nx^{\,n-1}$.
• A product rule 乘积法则: $(uv)' = u'v + uv'$.
• A quotient rule 商法则, where $v\ne0$: $\left(\dfrac{u}{v}\right)' = \dfrac{u'v - uv'}{v^2}$.
• A chain rule 链式法则: if $y = f(g(x))$ then $\dfrac{dy}{dx} = f'(g(x)) \cdot g'(x)$.
• Stationary points 驻点 occur where $f'(x) = 0$. The second derivative 二阶导数 then classifies a stationary point when it is nonzero: negative gives a local maximum 极大值 and positive a local minimum 极小值. A zero second derivative is inconclusive; use derivative signs or other evidence. A stationary inflection can be neither an extremum.

Worked example. a tangent slope differs from a secant slope

Known: $f(x)=x^2$. The secant between x equal to 1 and 2 has slope 3, but the derivative at x equal to 1 is 2.

The average slope over a finite interval need not equal the instantaneous slope at either endpoint.

Use original practice sheet 3.1 to test the method, domain and interpretation against its solutions.

Indefinite integration finds antiderivatives. Definite integration measures signed accumulation, which can differ from geometric area. For a continuous integrand, the fundamental theorem of calculus 微积分基本定理 connects a definite integral to the difference of antiderivative values at its limits.

• An indefinite integral 不定积分 has no limits and needs the constant of integration 积分常数: $\displaystyle\int x^n\,dx = \frac{x^{\,n+1}}{n+1} + c$ for $n \neq -1$.
• A definite integral 定积分 has limits and gives a number: $\displaystyle\int_a^b f(x)\,dx = F(b) - F(a)$.
• Integration by substitution 换元积分法 reverses the chain rule.
• ⚠ Forgetting $+c$ on an indefinite integral is the single most frequent lost mark in the module, and it is lost on questions you have otherwise answered correctly.

Worked example. negative and positive areas can cancel

Known: $f(x)=x$ from negative 1 to 1. Its definite integral is zero because the negative and positive contributions cancel.

Geometric area instead adds the magnitudes of the two triangular regions.

Use original practice sheet 3.2 to test the method, domain and interpretation against its solutions.

• Otimização 最优化 finds the largest or smallest value of a quantity: write the quantity as a function of one variable on a stated feasible domain, differentiate, find candidates and justify the required optimum. Check included boundaries and integer constraints where relevant.
• Rates of change 变化率 chain together: $\dfrac{dV}{dt} = \dfrac{dV}{dr} \times \dfrac{dr}{dt}$.
• Area between two curves 两曲线间面积 is $\displaystyle\int_a^b (f(x) - g(x))\,dx$ where $f$ is the upper curve on that whole interval. Split at crossings if their order changes.
• Marginal cost and revenue 边际成本与边际收益 are derivatives of stated continuous cost and revenue models. They are instantaneous rates, not automatically exact discrete-unit changes.

Worked example. a fixed perimeter leaves one area variable

Known: a rectangle has perimeter 20, so length plus width is 10. Let width be x; length is $10-x$ e $0.

The stationary candidate is $x=5$. Since $A''(x)=-2<0$ and the area approaches zero at both domain ends, this candidate is the global maximum. It is a 5 by 5 square with area 25.

Use original practice sheet 3.3 to test the method, domain and interpretation against its solutions.