Conditioning, reinforcement and observational learning
Introduced| English |
|---|
| extinction/ekˈstɪŋkʃn/ |
| negative reinforcement/ˈneɡətɪv ˌriːɪnˈfɔːsmənt/ |
A decision before an answer
- Removing something unpleasant can strengthen a behaviour just as much as giving a reward, and confusing the two is the classic exam error.
- Your goal: Distinguish classical from operant conditioning by what is learned.
Pair the stimuli
- Classical conditioning pairs a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus until the neutral stimulus (now conditioned) evokes a conditioned response: bell then food gives bell-evoked salivation.
- Key phenomena: acquisition, extinction when the CS appears without the US, spontaneous recovery after a pause, generalisation to similar stimuli and discrimination between them. The CS predicts the US; timing and contingency matter.
Taking an aspirin to relieve a headache makes future aspirin-taking more likely. This is:
The behaviour increases because an aversive state is removed; that is negative reinforcement.
Classify the consequence
- Operant conditioning changes voluntary behaviour by its consequences. Reinforcement INCREASES behaviour: positive adds something wanted, negative removes something aversive.
- Punishment DECREASES behaviour: positive adds something aversive, negative removes something wanted. Negative reinforcement is not punishment: escape and avoidance strengthen the behaviour that ends or prevents the aversive event.
The highest, steadiest response rate and greatest resistance to extinction come from a:
Variable-ratio schedules pay after an unpredictable number of responses, sustaining rapid steady responding.
Read the schedule
- Fixed-ratio schedules give high rates with a post-reinforcement pause; variable-ratio schedules give the highest, steadiest rates and resist extinction (gambling).
- Fixed-interval schedules give scalloped responding that rises near the interval end; variable-interval schedules give steady moderate rates. Ratio schedules count responses; interval schedules count time.
A tone repeatedly followed by food comes to evoke salivation; presenting the tone without food extinguishes it, yet the response can briefly return after a rest (spontaneous recovery). A slot machine is a variable-ratio schedule: rapid, steady, extinction-resistant play. Taking an aspirin to end a headache is negative reinforcement; a fine for late work is negative punishment.
Presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus leads to ____ of the conditioned response.
Without the US, the CR weakens, though spontaneous recovery can follow a rest.
Learn by watching
- Observational learning needs attention to the model, retention of what was seen, the ability to reproduce it, and motivation; vicarious reinforcement (seeing the model rewarded) raises imitation.
- Bandura's Bobo doll studies showed children imitate filmed aggression. Modelling extends learning beyond direct experience.
Calling negative reinforcement punishment, or treating any unpredictable reward as variable-ratio; interval schedules pay the first response AFTER the interval.
Which answer fits this case?
Distinguish classical from operant conditioning by what is learned
Negative reinforcement decreases the frequency of a behaviour.
Negative reinforcement increases behaviour by removing something aversive; punishment decreases behaviour.
Keep the distinctions
- negative reinforcement 负强化 — Strengthening a behaviour by removing an aversive stimulus; not punishment.
- extinction 消退 — Weakening of a conditioned response when the CS no longer predicts the US or the behaviour is no longer reinforced.
- Distinguish classical from operant conditioning by what is learned.
- Classify consequences and reinforcement schedules by their effects.
- Explain observational learning and its requirements.
Match each term with its precise meaning in this lesson.
Keep the distinctions stated in the teaching example.
Put this lesson’s reasoning or event sequence in order.
The order follows the stated process; check each stage before the next.