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Every C program starts in main. #include <stdio.h> pulls in a header 头文件 so you can use printf to print. A function 函数 is a named block you can call; \n starts a new line. main returns 0 to mean "success".
한국어
Every C program starts in main. #include <stdio.h> pulls in a header 头文件 so you can use printf to print. A function 函数 is a named block you can call; \n starts a new line. main returns 0 to mean "success".
#include <stdio.h>
void greet(void) {
printf("Hello, world!\n");
}
int main(void) {
greet();
printf("I am learning C.\n");
return 0;
}
Every C program runs from main after including headers
1.2
Variables, types & arithmetic
English
C needs a type for every variable: int (integer 整数), double (floating-point 浮点数), char (one character). printf uses a format specifier 格式说明符 — %d, %f, %c — for each value. / between two ints is integer division; % is the remainder 余数.
The format string drives both printing and reading:
Specifier
Type
Example output
%d
int
17
%f
double (%.2f = 2 decimal places)
3.14
%c
char
A
%s
a string
Mei
%zu
a size (from sizeof / strlen)
3
%x
int, printed in base 16
ff
scanf("%d", &n) reads keyboard input with the same specifiers (note the &). Its sibling sscanf parses values out of a string, so it runs anywhere:
한국어
C needs a type for every variable: int (integer 整数), double (floating-point 浮点数), char (one character). printf uses a format specifier 格式说明符 — %d, %f, %c — for each value. / between two ints is integer division; % is the remainder 余数.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
int n = 17;
double pi = 3.14;
char grade = 'A';
printf("%d %.2f %c\n", n, pi, grade); // 17 3.14 A
printf("%d %d\n", 7 / 2, 7 % 2); // 3 1
return 0;
}
The format string drives both printing and reading:
Specifier
Type
Example output
%d
int
17
%f
double (%.2f = 2 decimal places)
3.14
%c
char
A
%s
a string
Mei
%zu
a size (from sizeof / strlen)
3
%x
int, printed in base 16
ff
scanf("%d", &n) reads keyboard input with the same specifiers (note the &). Its sibling sscanf parses values out of a string, so it runs anywhere:
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
char line[] = "Mei 88";
char name[20];
int score;
sscanf(line, "%19s %d", name, &score); // parse text -> values
printf("%s scored %d\n", name, score); // Mei scored 88
return 0;
}
1.3
Comments & style
English
A comment 注释 is a note for humans; the compiler ignores it. Use // for one line and /* ... */ for a block. Good indentation 缩进 and clear names make code easy to read.
Common mistakes
Every statement ends with ;, and main should return int (return 0;).
printf needs a format string: %d for int, %f for double, and \n for a new line.
A wrong format like %d for a double prints garbage — match the type.
한국어
A comment 注释 is a note for humans; the compiler ignores it. Use // for one line and /* ... */ for a block. Good indentation 缩进 and clear names make code easy to read.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
// a single-line comment
/* a block
comment */
int total = 3 + 4; // clear names help
printf("%d\n", total); // 7
return 0;
}
Common mistakes
Every statement ends with ;, and main should return int (return 0;).
printf needs a format string: %d for int, %f for double, and \n for a new line.
A wrong format like %d for a double prints garbage — match the type.
An if runs a block when a condition 条件 is true. C has no real boolean 布尔值 type by default: 0 is false and any non-zero value is true. Chain choices with else if and else. Compare with ==, !=, <, >, <=, >=.
한국어
if는 조건이 참일 때 블록을 실행합니다. C는 기본적으로 진정한 부울리/type이 없습니다: 0은 false이고 0이 아닌 모든 값은 true입니다. else if와 else으로 선택을 체인할 수 있습니다. ==, !=, <, >, <=, >=과 비교하십시오.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
int score = 72;
if (score >= 90) {
printf("A\n");
} else if (score >= 60) {
printf("Pass\n");
} else {
printf("Fail\n");
}
return 0;
}
if는 참인 분기를 선택; else는 거짓 분기를 선택합니다
2.2
switch
English
A switch picks one case by an integer value. Each case needs a break to jump out 跳出 — without it, C "falls through" into the next case. default runs when nothing matches.
Common mistakes
if (x = 5) assigns and is always true; use == to compare.
Each switch case needs a break;, or it falls through to the next.
0 is false and any non-zero value is true in a condition.
한국어
switch은 정수 값으로 하나의 case을 선택합니다. 각 case에는 빠져나가기 위한 break이 필요하며, 없으면 C는 다음 case로 'fall through'됩니다.matched ничего when nothing matches runs default runs when nothing matches.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
int day = 3;
switch (day) {
case 1: printf("Mon\n"); break;
case 2: printf("Tue\n"); break;
case 3: printf("Wed\n"); break;
default: printf("Other\n");
}
return 0;
}
Common mistakes
if (x = 5)는 할당하고 항상 참입니다; ==을 사용하여 비교하십시오.
각 switch 케이스에는 break;이 필요합니다. 그렇지 않으면 다음 케이스로Fall through됩니다.
A loop 循环 repeats a block. A while loop runs as long as a condition is true. A for loop packs the start, the test, and the increment 自增 (i++) into one line — best when you know how many times to repeat.
한국어
루프는 블록을 반복합니다. while 루프는 조건이 true인 동안 실행됩니다. for 루프는 시작값, 테스트 조건, 증가량(i++)을 한 줄에 묶습니다 — 반복 횟수를 미리 알 때 가장 좋습니다.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
int i = 1;
while (i <= 3) {
printf("%d ", i);
i++;
}
printf("\n"); // 1 2 3
for (int j = 0; j < 5; j++) {
printf("%d ", j);
}
printf("\n"); // 0 1 2 3 4
return 0;
}
while checks a condition; for counts with a step
3.2
누적 (Accumulation)
English
A common pattern: start an accumulator 累加器 at 0, then add to it inside a loop. The same idea counts items or finds a running total.
한국어
일반적인 패턴: accumulator를 0로 시작하여 루프 내부에서 더합니다. 같은 아이디어로 항목을 세거나 누적 합계를 구할 수 있습니다.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
int total = 0;
for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {
total += i; // 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5
}
printf("%d\n", total); // 15
return 0;
}
3.3
중첩 루프 & 패턴
English
A loop inside another loop is a nested 嵌套 loop. The inner loop finishes fully for each step of the outer loop — perfect for grids and patterns.
Common mistakes
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) runs n times; a semicolon right after for (...) makes an empty loop.
A while whose condition never becomes false loops forever.
Declare the counter (int i) before or inside the for header.
한국어
루프 안의 루프는 중첩 루프입니다. 외부 루프의 각 단계마다 내부 루프가 완전히 끝납니다 — 격자나 패턴을 만들기에 완벽합니다.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
for (int row = 0; row < 3; row++) {
for (int col = 0; col < 3; col++) {
printf("*");
}
printf("\n");
}
return 0;
}
Common mistakes
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)는 n번 실행됩니다; for (...) 바로 뒤에 세미콜론이 있으면 빈 루프가 됩니다.
A function takes parameters 参数 (inputs) and gives back a return value 返回值. The return type comes first (int, double, …); void means it returns nothing.
한국어
함수는 매개변수(입력)를 받아 반환 값을 돌려줍니다. 반환 유형이 먼저 오고(int, double, …); void는 아무것도 반환하지 않음을 의미합니다.
#include <stdio.h>
int square(int x) { // x is a parameter
return x * x; // hand back a value
}
int main(void) {
int r = square(5);
printf("%d\n", r); // 25
return 0;
}
Parameters in; return value out
4.2
프로토타입 및 scopescope
English
C reads top to bottom, so a function must be known before it is called. A prototype 函数原型 — the header line plus ; — declares it early so you can keep main first. A variable's scope 作用域 is the block it lives in: it is local 局部 and disappears when the block ends.
Common mistakes
A function used before it is defined needs a prototype above main.
Arguments are passed BY VALUE — changes inside a function do not affect the caller unless you pass a pointer.
A variable declared inside a function is local to it.
한국어
C는 위에서 아래로 읽으므로 함수는 호출되기 전에 알려져야 합니다. 프로토타입 — 헤더 줄과 ; — 는 일찍 선언되어 main를 최상단에 두게 합니다. 변수의 scope는 그 변수가 존재하는 블록입니다: 로컬이며 블록이 끝나면 사라집니다.
#include <stdio.h>
int add(int a, int b); // prototype: declared before use
int main(void) {
printf("%d\n", add(3, 4)); // 7
return 0;
}
int add(int a, int b) { // definition comes later
int sum = a + b; // sum is local to add
return sum;
}
Common mistakes
정의되기 전에 사용되는 함수 위에는 main 위에 프로타입이 있어야 합니다.
인자는 BY VALUE로 전달됩니다 — 함수 내부의 변경 사항은 포인터를 전달하지 않는 한 caller에 영향을 주지 않습니다.
An array 数组 holds several values of one type. Index 索引 from 0. C does not store an array's length, so a common trick computes the element 元素 count: sizeof(a) / sizeof(a[0]).
한국어
An array 数组 holds several values of one type. Index 索引 from 0. C does not store an array's length, so a common trick computes the element 元素 count: sizeof(a) / sizeof(a[0]).
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
int scores[3] = {88, 71, 95};
printf("%d\n", scores[0]); // 88
scores[1] = 100;
printf("%d\n", scores[1]); // 100
int n = sizeof(scores) / sizeof(scores[0]);
printf("%d\n", n); // 3
return 0;
}
Array slots are indexed from 0
5.2
Array algorithms
English
Traverse 遍历 an array with a for loop to find a max, a total, or a count. Always loop from 0 up to n - 1.
한국어
Traverse 遍历 an array with a for loop to find a max, a total, or a count. Always loop from 0 up to n - 1.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
int a[] = {3, 9, 2, 7};
int n = sizeof(a) / sizeof(a[0]);
int max = a[0], total = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
if (a[i] > max) max = a[i];
total += a[i];
}
printf("%d %d\n", max, total); // 9 21
return 0;
}
5.3
2-D arrays
English
A 2-D array is a grid of rows 行 and columns 列: grid[row][col]. Use two nested loops to visit every cell.
Common mistakes
C does NOT check array bounds: writing a[n] in a size-n array is undefined behaviour.
Valid indexes run from 0 to n - 1.
The array name is a pointer to its first element; sizeof only gives the size in the array's own scope.
한국어
A 2-D array is a grid of rows 行 and columns 列: grid[row][col]. Use two nested loops to visit every cell.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
int grid[2][3] = {{1, 2, 3}, {4, 5, 6}};
printf("%d\n", grid[1][2]); // 6
for (int r = 0; r < 2; r++) {
for (int c = 0; c < 3; c++) {
printf("%d ", grid[r][c]);
}
}
printf("\n"); // 1 2 3 4 5 6
return 0;
}
Common mistakes
C does NOT check array bounds: writing a[n] in a size-n array is undefined behaviour.
Valid indexes run from 0 to n - 1.
The array name is a pointer to its first element; sizeof only gives the size in the array's own scope.
A pointer 指针 stores the address 地址 of a variable. &x gives the address of x; *p dereferences 解引用 the pointer — it reads or writes the value stored there. Passing a pointer lets a function change the caller's variable (pass-by-pointer).
The classic use is a swap function. Passing values only copies them — the swap is lost. Passing pointers lets the function reach the caller's variables:
An array name acts as a pointer to its first element, and pointer arithmetic 指针运算 steps by whole elements:
NULL is the pointer that points at nothing — check for it before you dereference.
Common mistakes
&x is the address of x; *p is the value stored at p.
Never use *p on an uninitialised or NULL pointer — it crashes or corrupts memory.
To change a caller's variable, pass its address and write through the pointer.
한국어
A pointer 指针 stores the address 地址 of a variable. &x gives the address of x; *p dereferences 解引用 the pointer — it reads or writes the value stored there. Passing a pointer lets a function change the caller's variable (pass-by-pointer).
A pointer stores an address; dereferencing it follows the arrow to the value
#include <stdio.h>
void addOne(int *p) { // p holds an address
*p = *p + 1; // change the value at that address
}
int main(void) {
int x = 10;
int *ptr = &x; // & takes the address of x
printf("%d\n", *ptr); // * reads the value: 10
addOne(&x);
printf("%d\n", x); // 11 — changed through the pointer
return 0;
}
The classic use is a swap function. Passing values only copies them — the swap is lost. Passing pointers lets the function reach the caller's variables:
#include <stdio.h>
void swap_values(int a, int b) { // copies: the caller sees nothing
int t = a; a = b; b = t;
}
void swap_pointers(int *a, int *b) { // addresses: the swap is real
int t = *a; *a = *b; *b = t;
}
int main(void) {
int x = 1, y = 2;
swap_values(x, y);
printf("%d %d\n", x, y); // 1 2 (unchanged!)
swap_pointers(&x, &y);
printf("%d %d\n", x, y); // 2 1 (swapped)
return 0;
}
An array name acts as a pointer to its first element, and pointer arithmetic 指针运算 steps by whole elements:
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
int a[] = {10, 20, 30};
int *p = a; // same as &a[0]
printf("%d\n", *p); // 10
printf("%d\n", *(p + 2)); // 30 — same as a[2]
return 0;
}
NULL is the pointer that points at nothing — check for it before you dereference.
Common mistakes
&x is the address of x; *p is the value stored at p.
Never use *p on an uninitialised or NULL pointer — it crashes or corrupts memory.
To change a caller's variable, pass its address and write through the pointer.
A C string 字符串 is an array of char. Every string ends with a hidden null terminator 空终止符'\0', which marks where it stops. strlen (from <string.h>) counts characters up to that '\0'. Print a whole string with %s and one character 字符 with %c.
You can traverse a string by looping until you reach '\0'.
한국어
A C string 字符串 is an array of char. Every string ends with a hidden null terminator 空终止符 '\0', which marks where it stops. strlen (from <string.h>) counts characters up to that '\0'. Print a whole string with %s and one character 字符 with %c.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main(void) {
char name[] = "Mei"; // 'M', 'e', 'i', '\0'
printf("%s\n", name); // Mei
printf("%zu\n", strlen(name)); // 3 (stops at '\0')
printf("%c\n", name[0]); // M
return 0;
}
A C string is a char array ending in a hidden null terminator
You can traverse a string by looping until you reach '\0'.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
char word[] = "banana";
int count = 0;
for (int i = 0; word[i] != '\0'; i++) {
if (word[i] == 'a') count++;
}
printf("%d\n", count); // 3
return 0;
}
7.2
The string.h library
#include <string.h> gives you the everyday string tools:
Function
Does
strlen(s)
the length, not counting the terminator
strcpy(dst, src)
copy — dst must be big enough
strcat(dst, src)
append src onto the end of dst
strcmp(a, b)
compare: 0 when equal, else negative / positive
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main(void) {
char full[40];
strcpy(full, "Mei"); // full is now "Mei"
strcat(full, " Chen"); // append -> "Mei Chen"
printf("%s (%zu)\n", full, strlen(full)); // Mei Chen (8)
printf("%d\n", strcmp("apple", "apple") == 0); // 1 (equal)
return 0;
}
strcmp returns 0 for equal, so the test is strcmp(a, b) == 0 — never a == b.
The destination array must have room for the result plus the terminator.
Common mistakes
A C string needs one extra byte for the \0 terminator: a 5-letter word needs char[6].
Copy and compare strings with strcpy / strcmp, not = / ==.
Forgetting the \0 makes printf("%s", ...) run past the end of the text.
A struct 结构体 groups related values into one type. Each value is a member 成员. typedef gives the struct a short name so you can write Dog instead of struct Dog. Use . on a struct value, but -> on a pointer to a struct.
Common mistakes
Use . on a struct value and -> on a struct pointer.
typedef lets you drop the word struct when declaring; without it you write struct Point p;.
Assigning one struct to another copies all its fields.
한국어
struct는 관련된 값들을 하나의 유형에 묶습니다. 각 값은 멤버입니다. typedef은 struct에 짧은 이름을 부여하여 Dog을 struct Dog 대신 쓸 수 있게 합니다. struct 값에는 .을 사용하되, struct 포인터에는 ->을 사용합니다.
#include <stdio.h>
typedef struct {
char name[20];
int age;
} Dog;
int main(void) {
Dog d = {"Rex", 3};
printf("%s is %d\n", d.name, d.age); // Rex is 3 (. on a value)
Dog *p = &d;
p->age = 4; // -> on a pointer
printf("%s is %d\n", d.name, d.age); // Rex is 4
return 0;
}
malloc allocates 分配 memory on the heap 堆 at run time and returns a pointer to it. realloc resizes that block; free gives it back. Every malloc needs a matching free, or you get a memory leak 内存泄漏. These live in <stdlib.h>.
calloc(n, size) allocates an array like malloc AND fills it with zeros.
Common mistakes
Every malloc needs a matching free; forgetting to free leaks memory.
Using memory after free (a "use-after-free") is a serious bug.
Check that malloc did not return NULL before you use the memory.
한국어
malloc allocates 分配 memory on the heap 堆 at run time and returns a pointer to it. realloc resizes that block; free gives it back. Every malloc needs a matching free, or you get a memory leak 内存泄漏. These live in <stdlib.h>.
Locals live on the stack; malloc memory lives on the heap until you free it
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(void) {
int n = 3;
int *a = malloc(n * sizeof(int)); // room for 3 ints
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) a[i] = i * 10;
a = realloc(a, 4 * sizeof(int)); // grow to 4 ints
a[3] = 30;
for (int i = 0; i < 4; i++) printf("%d ", a[i]);
printf("\n"); // 0 10 20 30
free(a); // hand the memory back
return 0;
}
calloc(n, size) allocates an array like malloc AND fills it with zeros.
Common mistakes
Every malloc needs a matching free; forgetting to free leaks memory.
Using memory after free (a "use-after-free") is a serious bug.
Check that malloc did not return NULL before you use the memory.
A linked list 链表 is a chain of nodes 节点. Each node holds a value and a pointer to the next node; the last one points to NULL. Unlike an array it grows one node at a time with malloc. Always free every node when done.
한국어
연결リスト는 노드의 사슬입니다. 각 노드는 값과 next 노드에 대한 포인터를 유지하며, 마지막 노드는 NULL을 가리킵니다. 배열과는 달리, 연결리스트는 malloc로 한 번에 하나의 노드를 추가하여 확장됩니다. 작업이 완료되면 항상 모든 노드를 free해야 합니다.
링크드 리스트: 각 노드는 값을 가지며 다음 노드를 가리키고 NULL에서 끝납니다
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
typedef struct Node {
int value;
struct Node *next;
} Node;
int main(void) {
Node *head = NULL;
for (int v = 10; v <= 30; v += 10) { // prepend 10, 20, 30
Node *n = malloc(sizeof(Node));
n->value = v;
n->next = head;
head = n;
}
for (Node *p = head; p != NULL; p = p->next) {
printf("%d ", p->value); // 30 20 10
}
printf("\n");
while (head != NULL) { // free the whole list
Node *t = head;
head = head->next;
free(t);
}
return 0;
}
10.2
스택 & 큐
English
A stack 栈 is LIFO 后进先出 (last in, first out): push and pop at the same end. A queue 队列 is FIFO 先进先出 (first in, first out): add at the back, remove from the front. Both are easy to build on an array with index variables.
Common mistakes
In a linked list, never lose the head pointer, or the whole list is unreachable.
Free every node when you are done, walking the list before you unlink.
Check for an empty list (a NULL head) before you pop.
한국어
스택은 LIFO(후입력 우선출력)입니다: 같은 끝에서 push와 pop을 수행합니다. 큐는 FIFO(전입력 우선출력)입니다: 뒤쪽에서 추가하고 앞쪽에서 제거합니다. 두 구조 모두 인덱스 변수가 있는 배열 위에 쉽게 구현할 수 있습니다.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
int stack[10];
int top = 0; // next free slot
stack[top++] = 1; // push
stack[top++] = 2;
stack[top++] = 3;
while (top > 0) {
printf("%d ", stack[--top]); // pop: 3 2 1
}
printf("\n");
return 0;
}
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
int queue[10];
int front = 0, back = 0;
queue[back++] = 1; // enqueue
queue[back++] = 2;
queue[back++] = 3;
while (front < back) {
printf("%d ", queue[front++]); // dequeue: 1 2 3
}
printf("\n");
return 0;
}
Linear search 线性查找 checks each element in turn — it works on any array. Binary search 二分查找 is far faster but needs a sorted 已排序 array: it checks the middle and discards half each step. Both return the index, or -1 if missing.
한국어
선형 탐색은 요소를 순차적으로 확인하므로 어떤 배열에서도 작동합니다. 이진 탐색은 훨씬 빠르지만 정렬된 배열이 필요합니다: 중간 요소를 확인하고 매 단계마다 절반을 삭제합니다. 둘 다 인덱스를 반환하며, 요소가 없을 경우 -1을 반환합니다.
#include <stdio.h>
int linear(int a[], int n, int target) {
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)
if (a[i] == target) return i;
return -1;
}
int binary(int a[], int n, int target) {
int lo = 0, hi = n - 1;
while (lo <= hi) {
int mid = (lo + hi) / 2;
if (a[mid] == target) return mid;
else if (a[mid] < target) lo = mid + 1;
else hi = mid - 1;
}
return -1;
}
int main(void) {
int a[] = {2, 5, 8, 12, 16, 23};
int n = sizeof(a) / sizeof(a[0]);
printf("%d %d %d\n", linear(a, n, 12), binary(a, n, 12), binary(a, n, 9));
return 0; // 3 3 -1
}
선형 탐색은 전체 스캔; 이진 탐색은 정렬된 범위 반으로 줄임
11.2
정렬
English
Bubble sort 冒泡排序 repeatedly compares neighbours and swaps 交换 any pair that is out of order. After each pass the largest value "bubbles" to the end.
한국어
버블 정렬은 인접한 요소를 반복 비교하여 순서가 맞지 않는 쌍을 교체합니다. 각 패스 후 가장 큰 값이 "거품처럼" 끝으로 이동합니다.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
int a[] = {5, 2, 9, 1, 7};
int n = sizeof(a) / sizeof(a[0]);
for (int i = 0; i < n - 1; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < n - 1 - i; j++) {
if (a[j] > a[j + 1]) {
int t = a[j]; a[j] = a[j + 1]; a[j + 1] = t;
}
}
}
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) printf("%d ", a[i]);
printf("\n"); // 1 2 5 7 9
return 0;
}
11.3
재귀
English
Recursion 递归 is a function that calls itself. It needs a base case 基准情形 to stop, and a recursive call that steps toward it. Without a base case it never ends.
Common mistakes
Binary search needs a sorted array; recursion needs a base case.
Each recursive call must move closer to the base case, or the stack overflows.
Bubble and insertion sort are O(n²) — fine to learn, slow at scale.
한국어
재귀(recursion)는 함수가 자신을 호출하는 것입니다. 멈추기 위한 기본 조건(base case)이 필요하며, 그 조건으로 나아가는 재귀 호출이 필요합니다. 기본 조건이 없으면 영구히 계속됩니다.
#include <stdio.h>
int factorial(int n) {
if (n <= 1) return 1; // base case
return n * factorial(n - 1); // recursive call
}
int main(void) {
printf("%d\n", factorial(5)); // 120
return 0;
}
Common mistakes
이진 탐색은 정렬된 배열이 필요하며, 재귀는 기본 조건이 필요합니다.
각 재귀 호출은 기본 조건에 가까워져야 하며, 그렇지 않으면 스택 오버플로우가 발생합니다.
버블 정렬 및 삽입 정렬은 O(n²)의 복잡도를 가집니다: 학습용으로는 적합하지만 대량 데이터에서는 느립니다.
fopen returns a file pointer 文件指针; the mode 模式 string says what to do — "w" write, "r" read, "a" append. Write with fprintf, read with fscanf, and always fclose when done.
한국어
fopen은 파일 포인터를 반환하며, 모드 문자열은 동작을 지정합니다 — "w"는 쓰기, "r"는 읽기, "a"는 추가(append). 쓰기는 fprintf로, 읽기는 fscanf로, 작업 완료 시 항상 fclose을 수행하십시오.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
FILE *out = fopen("scores.txt", "w"); // open for writing
fprintf(out, "Alice 80\nBob 95\n");
fclose(out);
FILE *in = fopen("scores.txt", "r"); // open for reading
char name[20];
int score;
while (fscanf(in, "%s %d", name, &score) == 2) {
printf("%s -> %d\n", name, score);
}
fclose(in);
return 0;
}
fopen → read/write → fclose
12.2
반환 코드를 통한 에러 처리
English
C has no exceptions. Instead a function signals failure with a return code 返回码 — by convention 0 means success and non-zero means an error. The caller checks the code before trusting the result. (fopen follows the same idea: it returns NULL when it fails.)
Common mistakes
Check that fopen did not return NULL before reading or writing.
Always fclose a file when you are done.
Return a non-zero code from main to signal an error to the caller.
한국어
C는 예외 handling이 없습니다. 대신 함수는 반환 코드로 실패를 알립니다 — 관례상 0은 성공, 비영번호는 오류를 의미합니다. 호출자는 결과에 신뢰하기 전에 코드를 확인해야 합니다. (fopen도 동일한 원리를 따릅니다: 실패 시 NULL를 반환합니다.)
#include <stdio.h>
// returns 0 on success, -1 if the divisor is 0
int safe_divide(int a, int b, int *result) {
if (b == 0) return -1; // error code
*result = a / b;
return 0; // success
}
int main(void) {
int r;
if (safe_divide(10, 2, &r) == 0)
printf("10 / 2 = %d\n", r); // 10 / 2 = 5
if (safe_divide(10, 0, &r) != 0)
printf("cannot divide by zero\n"); // error reported
return 0;
}
A bit 位 is a single 0 or 1; numbers are stored in binary 二进制. Bitwise 按位 operators work on the bits directly: & AND, | OR, ^ XOR, << shift left (×2 each step), >> shift right (÷2).
Hexadecimal 十六进制 (base 16) writes binary compactly: one hex digit is exactly four bits. Write hex literals with 0x; print with %x:
한국어
A bit 位 is a single 0 or 1; numbers are stored in binary 二进制. Bitwise 按位 operators work on the bits directly: & AND, | OR, ^ XOR, << shift left (×2 each step), >> shift right (÷2).
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
int a = 12; // 1100
int b = 10; // 1010
printf("%d\n", a & b); // 8 AND -> 1000
printf("%d\n", a | b); // 14 OR -> 1110
printf("%d\n", a ^ b); // 6 XOR -> 0110
printf("%d\n", a << 1); // 24 left shift
printf("%d\n", a >> 1); // 6 right shift
return 0;
}
Hexadecimal 十六进制 (base 16) writes binary compactly: one hex digit is exactly four bits. Write hex literals with 0x; print with %x:
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
printf("%d\n", 0xFF); // 255 (0x marks a hex literal)
printf("%x\n", 255); // ff
printf("%x\n", 12); // c
return 0;
}
Bitwise operators work on the bits of integers
13.2
Run-length encoding
English
Run-length encoding (RLE) is a simple compression 压缩 method: replace each run 游程 of repeated characters with a count and the character. It is lossless 无损 — the original is fully recoverable.
Common mistakes
& is bitwise AND and && is logical AND — do not confuse them.
A left shift << 1 doubles a value; a right shift >> 1 halves it.
Bit n has value 1 << n (C has no ** power operator); check a bit with (x >> n) & 1.
한국어
Run-length encoding (RLE) is a simple compression 压缩 method: replace each run 游程 of repeated characters with a count and the character. It is lossless 无损 — the original is fully recoverable.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main(void) {
char *s = "aaabbc";
int n = strlen(s);
for (int i = 0; i < n; ) {
char c = s[i];
int run = 0;
while (i < n && s[i] == c) { run++; i++; }
printf("%d%c", run, c); // 3a2b1c
}
printf("\n");
return 0;
}
Common mistakes
& is bitwise AND and && is logical AND — do not confuse them.
A left shift << 1 doubles a value; a right shift >> 1 halves it.
Bit n has value 1 << n (C has no ** power operator); check a bit with (x >> n) & 1.
The preprocessor 预处理器 runs before compiling. #define makes a macro 宏 — plain text replaced everywhere. const makes a constant 常量 that cannot change. static inside a function keeps a variable's value between calls. An enum (enumeration 枚举) names a set of integers starting at 0.
Bigger programs split across files: declarations go in a header 头文件 file (mine.h), included with #include "mine.h" — quotes mean your own file, < > means the standard library. An include guard (#ifndef MINE_H / #define MINE_H / #endif) stops a header being included twice.
Common mistakes
#define does plain text replacement with no type checking; wrap macro bodies and arguments in parentheses.
A const value cannot be changed after it is set.
A static local variable keeps its value between calls to the function.
한국어
전预处理(preprocessor)는 컴파일 전에 실행됩니다. #define은 매크로를 생성하여 전역에서 plain text를 교체합니다. const은 변경할 수 없는 상수를 만듭니다. 함수 내부의 static는 호출 간 변수 값을 유지합니다. enum(열거형)은 0부터 시작하는 일련의 정수에 이름을 부여합니다.
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX 100 // macro: text replaced before compiling
enum Color { RED, GREEN, BLUE }; // named integers 0, 1, 2
int next_id(void) {
static int count = 0; // keeps its value between calls
count++;
return count;
}
int main(void) {
const double PI = 3.14; // cannot be changed
printf("%d %.2f\n", MAX, PI); // 100 3.14
printf("%d %d %d\n", RED, GREEN, BLUE); // 0 1 2
int a = next_id();
int b = next_id();
printf("%d %d\n", a, b); // 1 2
return 0;
}
더 큰 프로그램은 여러 파일로 나뉩니다: 선언문은 헤더 파일(mine.h)에 placing하며, #include "mine.h"으로 포함합니다. 따옴표(quotes)는 사용자 정의 파일을 의미하고, < >는 표준 라이브러리를 의미합니다. Include guard(#ifndef MINE_H / #define MINE_H / #endif)는 헤더 파일이 두 번 포함되는 것을 방지합니다.
Common mistakes
#define은 타입 체크 없이 plain text 교체를 수행하므로, 매크로 본체와 인자를 괄호로 감싸십시오.