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Every C program starts in main. #include <stdio.h> pulls in a header 头文件 so you can use printf to print. A function 函数 is a named block you can call; \n starts a new line. main returns 0 to mean "success".
日本語
Every C program starts in main. #include <stdio.h> pulls in a header 头文件 so you can use printf to print. A function 函数 is a named block you can call; \n starts a new line. main returns 0 to mean "success".
#include <stdio.h>
void greet(void) {
printf("Hello, world!\n");
}
int main(void) {
greet();
printf("I am learning C.\n");
return 0;
}
Every C program runs from main after including headers
1.2
Variables, types & arithmetic
English
C needs a type for every variable: int (integer 整数), double (floating-point 浮点数), char (one character). printf uses a format specifier 格式说明符 — %d, %f, %c — for each value. / between two ints is integer division; % is the remainder 余数.
The format string drives both printing and reading:
Specifier
Type
Example output
%d
int
17
%f
double (%.2f = 2 decimal places)
3.14
%c
char
A
%s
a string
Mei
%zu
a size (from sizeof / strlen)
3
%x
int, printed in base 16
ff
scanf("%d", &n) reads keyboard input with the same specifiers (note the &). Its sibling sscanf parses values out of a string, so it runs anywhere:
日本語
C needs a type for every variable: int (integer 整数), double (floating-point 浮点数), char (one character). printf uses a format specifier 格式说明符 — %d, %f, %c — for each value. / between two ints is integer division; % is the remainder 余数.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
int n = 17;
double pi = 3.14;
char grade = 'A';
printf("%d %.2f %c\n", n, pi, grade); // 17 3.14 A
printf("%d %d\n", 7 / 2, 7 % 2); // 3 1
return 0;
}
The format string drives both printing and reading:
Specifier
Type
Example output
%d
int
17
%f
double (%.2f = 2 decimal places)
3.14
%c
char
A
%s
a string
Mei
%zu
a size (from sizeof / strlen)
3
%x
int, printed in base 16
ff
scanf("%d", &n) reads keyboard input with the same specifiers (note the &). Its sibling sscanf parses values out of a string, so it runs anywhere:
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
char line[] = "Mei 88";
char name[20];
int score;
sscanf(line, "%19s %d", name, &score); // parse text -> values
printf("%s scored %d\n", name, score); // Mei scored 88
return 0;
}
1.3
Comments & style
English
A comment 注释 is a note for humans; the compiler ignores it. Use // for one line and /* ... */ for a block. Good indentation 缩进 and clear names make code easy to read.
Common mistakes
Every statement ends with ;, and main should return int (return 0;).
printf needs a format string: %d for int, %f for double, and \n for a new line.
A wrong format like %d for a double prints garbage — match the type.
日本語
A comment 注释 is a note for humans; the compiler ignores it. Use // for one line and /* ... */ for a block. Good indentation 缩进 and clear names make code easy to read.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
// a single-line comment
/* a block
comment */
int total = 3 + 4; // clear names help
printf("%d\n", total); // 7
return 0;
}
Common mistakes
Every statement ends with ;, and main should return int (return 0;).
printf needs a format string: %d for int, %f for double, and \n for a new line.
A wrong format like %d for a double prints garbage — match the type.
An if runs a block when a condition 条件 is true. C has no real boolean 布尔值 type by default: 0 is false and any non-zero value is true. Chain choices with else if and else. Compare with ==, !=, <, >, <=, >=.
日本語
if は条件が真のときにブロックを実行します。Cのデフォルトでは実質的な布尔型はありません:0 は偽であり、それ以外の非ゼロ値は真です。else if と else で選択肢を連鎖させます。==, !=, <, >, <=, >= と比較してください。
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
int score = 72;
if (score >= 90) {
printf("A\n");
} else if (score >= 60) {
printf("Pass\n");
} else {
printf("Fail\n");
}
return 0;
}
ifは真の分支を選択し、elseは偽の分支を選択
2.2
switch
English
A switch picks one case by an integer value. Each case needs a break to jump out 跳出 — without it, C "falls through" into the next case. default runs when nothing matches.
Common mistakes
if (x = 5) assigns and is always true; use == to compare.
Each switch case needs a break;, or it falls through to the next.
0 is false and any non-zero value is true in a condition.
日本語
switch は整数値に基づいて1つの case を選びます。各 case には break が必要で、なければCは次のケースへと"Fall through"します。default は一致するものがない場合に実行されます。
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
int day = 3;
switch (day) {
case 1: printf("Mon\n"); break;
case 2: printf("Tue\n"); break;
case 3: printf("Wed\n"); break;
default: printf("Other\n");
}
return 0;
}
** 一般的なミス **
if (x = 5) は代入を行うため常に真です;比較するには == を使用してください。
各switchケースにはbreak;が必要であり、指定しない場合次のケースへ fall through する。
A loop 循环 repeats a block. A while loop runs as long as a condition is true. A for loop packs the start, the test, and the increment 自增 (i++) into one line — best when you know how many times to repeat.
日本語
A loop 循环 repeats a block. A while loop runs as long as a condition is true. A for loop packs the start, the test, and the increment 自增 (i++) into one line — best when you know how many times to repeat.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
int i = 1;
while (i <= 3) {
printf("%d ", i);
i++;
}
printf("\n"); // 1 2 3
for (int j = 0; j < 5; j++) {
printf("%d ", j);
}
printf("\n"); // 0 1 2 3 4
return 0;
}
while checks a condition; for counts with a step
3.2
Accumulation
English
A common pattern: start an accumulator 累加器 at 0, then add to it inside a loop. The same idea counts items or finds a running total.
日本語
A common pattern: start an accumulator 累加器 at 0, then add to it inside a loop. The same idea counts items or finds a running total.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
int total = 0;
for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {
total += i; // 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5
}
printf("%d\n", total); // 15
return 0;
}
3.3
Nested loops & patterns
English
A loop inside another loop is a nested 嵌套 loop. The inner loop finishes fully for each step of the outer loop — perfect for grids and patterns.
Common mistakes
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) runs n times; a semicolon right after for (...) makes an empty loop.
A while whose condition never becomes false loops forever.
Declare the counter (int i) before or inside the for header.
日本語
A loop inside another loop is a nested 嵌套 loop. The inner loop finishes fully for each step of the outer loop — perfect for grids and patterns.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
for (int row = 0; row < 3; row++) {
for (int col = 0; col < 3; col++) {
printf("*");
}
printf("\n");
}
return 0;
}
Common mistakes
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) runs n times; a semicolon right after for (...) makes an empty loop.
A while whose condition never becomes false loops forever.
Declare the counter (int i) before or inside the for header.
A function takes parameters 参数 (inputs) and gives back a return value 返回值. The return type comes first (int, double, …); void means it returns nothing.
#include <stdio.h>
int square(int x) { // x is a parameter
return x * x; // hand back a value
}
int main(void) {
int r = square(5);
printf("%d\n", r); // 25
return 0;
}
パラメータは入力;返り値は出力
4.2
プロトタイプとスコープ
English
C reads top to bottom, so a function must be known before it is called. A prototype 函数原型 — the header line plus ; — declares it early so you can keep main first. A variable's scope 作用域 is the block it lives in: it is local 局部 and disappears when the block ends.
Common mistakes
A function used before it is defined needs a prototype above main.
Arguments are passed BY VALUE — changes inside a function do not affect the caller unless you pass a pointer.
A variable declared inside a function is local to it.
日本語
C は上から下へ解釈するため、関数は使用前に定義されている必要がある。プロトタイプ(ヘッダー行+;)で早期に宣言することで、main を先に記述できる。変数のスコープはそれが存在するブロックであり、ローカルであり、ブロック終了と同時に消滅する。
#include <stdio.h>
int add(int a, int b); // prototype: declared before use
int main(void) {
printf("%d\n", add(3, 4)); // 7
return 0;
}
int add(int a, int b) { // definition comes later
int sum = a + b; // sum is local to add
return sum;
}
** 一般的なミス **
定義前に使用される関数には、 main の上にプロトタイプ宣言が必要です。
引数は BY VALUE で渡される。関数内部での変更はポインタを渡さなければ呼び出し側には影響しない。
An array 数组 holds several values of one type. Index 索引 from 0. C does not store an array's length, so a common trick computes the element 元素 count: sizeof(a) / sizeof(a[0]).
日本語
An array 数组 holds several values of one type. Index 索引 from 0. C does not store an array's length, so a common trick computes the element 元素 count: sizeof(a) / sizeof(a[0]).
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
int scores[3] = {88, 71, 95};
printf("%d\n", scores[0]); // 88
scores[1] = 100;
printf("%d\n", scores[1]); // 100
int n = sizeof(scores) / sizeof(scores[0]);
printf("%d\n", n); // 3
return 0;
}
Array slots are indexed from 0
5.2
Array algorithms
English
Traverse 遍历 an array with a for loop to find a max, a total, or a count. Always loop from 0 up to n - 1.
日本語
Traverse 遍历 an array with a for loop to find a max, a total, or a count. Always loop from 0 up to n - 1.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
int a[] = {3, 9, 2, 7};
int n = sizeof(a) / sizeof(a[0]);
int max = a[0], total = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
if (a[i] > max) max = a[i];
total += a[i];
}
printf("%d %d\n", max, total); // 9 21
return 0;
}
5.3
2-D arrays
English
A 2-D array is a grid of rows 行 and columns 列: grid[row][col]. Use two nested loops to visit every cell.
Common mistakes
C does NOT check array bounds: writing a[n] in a size-n array is undefined behaviour.
Valid indexes run from 0 to n - 1.
The array name is a pointer to its first element; sizeof only gives the size in the array's own scope.
日本語
A 2-D array is a grid of rows 行 and columns 列: grid[row][col]. Use two nested loops to visit every cell.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
int grid[2][3] = {{1, 2, 3}, {4, 5, 6}};
printf("%d\n", grid[1][2]); // 6
for (int r = 0; r < 2; r++) {
for (int c = 0; c < 3; c++) {
printf("%d ", grid[r][c]);
}
}
printf("\n"); // 1 2 3 4 5 6
return 0;
}
Common mistakes
C does NOT check array bounds: writing a[n] in a size-n array is undefined behaviour.
Valid indexes run from 0 to n - 1.
The array name is a pointer to its first element; sizeof only gives the size in the array's own scope.
A pointer 指针 stores the address 地址 of a variable. &x gives the address of x; *p dereferences 解引用 the pointer — it reads or writes the value stored there. Passing a pointer lets a function change the caller's variable (pass-by-pointer).
The classic use is a swap function. Passing values only copies them — the swap is lost. Passing pointers lets the function reach the caller's variables:
An array name acts as a pointer to its first element, and pointer arithmetic 指针运算 steps by whole elements:
NULL is the pointer that points at nothing — check for it before you dereference.
Common mistakes
&x is the address of x; *p is the value stored at p.
Never use *p on an uninitialised or NULL pointer — it crashes or corrupts memory.
To change a caller's variable, pass its address and write through the pointer.
日本語
A pointer 指针 stores the address 地址 of a variable. &x gives the address of x; *p dereferences 解引用 the pointer — it reads or writes the value stored there. Passing a pointer lets a function change the caller's variable (pass-by-pointer).
A pointer stores an address; dereferencing it follows the arrow to the value
#include <stdio.h>
void addOne(int *p) { // p holds an address
*p = *p + 1; // change the value at that address
}
int main(void) {
int x = 10;
int *ptr = &x; // & takes the address of x
printf("%d\n", *ptr); // * reads the value: 10
addOne(&x);
printf("%d\n", x); // 11 — changed through the pointer
return 0;
}
The classic use is a swap function. Passing values only copies them — the swap is lost. Passing pointers lets the function reach the caller's variables:
#include <stdio.h>
void swap_values(int a, int b) { // copies: the caller sees nothing
int t = a; a = b; b = t;
}
void swap_pointers(int *a, int *b) { // addresses: the swap is real
int t = *a; *a = *b; *b = t;
}
int main(void) {
int x = 1, y = 2;
swap_values(x, y);
printf("%d %d\n", x, y); // 1 2 (unchanged!)
swap_pointers(&x, &y);
printf("%d %d\n", x, y); // 2 1 (swapped)
return 0;
}
An array name acts as a pointer to its first element, and pointer arithmetic 指针运算 steps by whole elements:
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
int a[] = {10, 20, 30};
int *p = a; // same as &a[0]
printf("%d\n", *p); // 10
printf("%d\n", *(p + 2)); // 30 — same as a[2]
return 0;
}
NULL is the pointer that points at nothing — check for it before you dereference.
Common mistakes
&x is the address of x; *p is the value stored at p.
Never use *p on an uninitialised or NULL pointer — it crashes or corrupts memory.
To change a caller's variable, pass its address and write through the pointer.
A C string 字符串 is an array of char. Every string ends with a hidden null terminator 空终止符'\0', which marks where it stops. strlen (from <string.h>) counts characters up to that '\0'. Print a whole string with %s and one character 字符 with %c.
You can traverse a string by looping until you reach '\0'.
A struct 结构体 groups related values into one type. Each value is a member 成员. typedef gives the struct a short name so you can write Dog instead of struct Dog. Use . on a struct value, but -> on a pointer to a struct.
Common mistakes
Use . on a struct value and -> on a struct pointer.
typedef lets you drop the word struct when declaring; without it you write struct Point p;.
Assigning one struct to another copies all its fields.
#include <stdio.h>
typedef struct {
char name[20];
int age;
} Dog;
int main(void) {
Dog d = {"Rex", 3};
printf("%s is %d\n", d.name, d.age); // Rex is 3 (. on a value)
Dog *p = &d;
p->age = 4; // -> on a pointer
printf("%s is %d\n", d.name, d.age); // Rex is 4
return 0;
}
** 一般的なミス **
structの値には . を、structのポインタには -> を使用します。
typedef を使うと宣言時にstruct という語を省略できる。使わない場合はstruct Point p; を書く。
malloc allocates 分配 memory on the heap 堆 at run time and returns a pointer to it. realloc resizes that block; free gives it back. Every malloc needs a matching free, or you get a memory leak 内存泄漏. These live in <stdlib.h>.
calloc(n, size) allocates an array like malloc AND fills it with zeros.
Common mistakes
Every malloc needs a matching free; forgetting to free leaks memory.
Using memory after free (a "use-after-free") is a serious bug.
Check that malloc did not return NULL before you use the memory.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(void) {
int n = 3;
int *a = malloc(n * sizeof(int)); // room for 3 ints
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) a[i] = i * 10;
a = realloc(a, 4 * sizeof(int)); // grow to 4 ints
a[3] = 30;
for (int i = 0; i < 4; i++) printf("%d ", a[i]);
printf("\n"); // 0 10 20 30
free(a); // hand the memory back
return 0;
}
A linked list 链表 is a chain of nodes 节点. Each node holds a value and a pointer to the next node; the last one points to NULL. Unlike an array it grows one node at a time with malloc. Always free every node when done.
日本語
連結リストはノードの連鎖です。各ノードは値と next ノードへのポインタを持ちます。最後ノードは NULL を指します。配列とは異なり、 malloc でノードを1つずつ拡張します。完了したら必ず free するまで全ノードを確認してください。
リンクリスト:各ノードは値と次のノードへのポインタを持ち、最後はNULLで終わります
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
typedef struct Node {
int value;
struct Node *next;
} Node;
int main(void) {
Node *head = NULL;
for (int v = 10; v <= 30; v += 10) { // prepend 10, 20, 30
Node *n = malloc(sizeof(Node));
n->value = v;
n->next = head;
head = n;
}
for (Node *p = head; p != NULL; p = p->next) {
printf("%d ", p->value); // 30 20 10
}
printf("\n");
while (head != NULL) { // free the whole list
Node *t = head;
head = head->next;
free(t);
}
return 0;
}
10.2
スタックとキュー
English
A stack 栈 is LIFO 后进先出 (last in, first out): push and pop at the same end. A queue 队列 is FIFO 先进先出 (first in, first out): add at the back, remove from the front. Both are easy to build on an array with index variables.
Common mistakes
In a linked list, never lose the head pointer, or the whole list is unreachable.
Free every node when you are done, walking the list before you unlink.
Check for an empty list (a NULL head) before you pop.
Linear search 线性查找 checks each element in turn — it works on any array. Binary search 二分查找 is far faster but needs a sorted 已排序 array: it checks the middle and discards half each step. Both return the index, or -1 if missing.
#include <stdio.h>
int linear(int a[], int n, int target) {
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)
if (a[i] == target) return i;
return -1;
}
int binary(int a[], int n, int target) {
int lo = 0, hi = n - 1;
while (lo <= hi) {
int mid = (lo + hi) / 2;
if (a[mid] == target) return mid;
else if (a[mid] < target) lo = mid + 1;
else hi = mid - 1;
}
return -1;
}
int main(void) {
int a[] = {2, 5, 8, 12, 16, 23};
int n = sizeof(a) / sizeof(a[0]);
printf("%d %d %d\n", linear(a, n, 12), binary(a, n, 12), binary(a, n, 9));
return 0; // 3 3 -1
}
線形探索はすべてチェック;二分探索は並べ替え済み範囲を半分ずつ減らします
11.2
ソート
English
Bubble sort 冒泡排序 repeatedly compares neighbours and swaps 交换 any pair that is out of order. After each pass the largest value "bubbles" to the end.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
int a[] = {5, 2, 9, 1, 7};
int n = sizeof(a) / sizeof(a[0]);
for (int i = 0; i < n - 1; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < n - 1 - i; j++) {
if (a[j] > a[j + 1]) {
int t = a[j]; a[j] = a[j + 1]; a[j + 1] = t;
}
}
}
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) printf("%d ", a[i]);
printf("\n"); // 1 2 5 7 9
return 0;
}
11.3
再帰
English
Recursion 递归 is a function that calls itself. It needs a base case 基准情形 to stop, and a recursive call that steps toward it. Without a base case it never ends.
Common mistakes
Binary search needs a sorted array; recursion needs a base case.
Each recursive call must move closer to the base case, or the stack overflows.
Bubble and insertion sort are O(n²) — fine to learn, slow at scale.
fopen returns a file pointer 文件指针; the mode 模式 string says what to do — "w" write, "r" read, "a" append. Write with fprintf, read with fscanf, and always fclose when done.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
FILE *out = fopen("scores.txt", "w"); // open for writing
fprintf(out, "Alice 80\nBob 95\n");
fclose(out);
FILE *in = fopen("scores.txt", "r"); // open for reading
char name[20];
int score;
while (fscanf(in, "%s %d", name, &score) == 2) {
printf("%s -> %d\n", name, score);
}
fclose(in);
return 0;
}
fopen → 読み書き → fclose
12.2
戻り値によるエラー処理
English
C has no exceptions. Instead a function signals failure with a return code 返回码 — by convention 0 means success and non-zero means an error. The caller checks the code before trusting the result. (fopen follows the same idea: it returns NULL when it fails.)
Common mistakes
Check that fopen did not return NULL before reading or writing.
Always fclose a file when you are done.
Return a non-zero code from main to signal an error to the caller.
A bit 位 is a single 0 or 1; numbers are stored in binary 二进制. Bitwise 按位 operators work on the bits directly: & AND, | OR, ^ XOR, << shift left (×2 each step), >> shift right (÷2).
Hexadecimal 十六进制 (base 16) writes binary compactly: one hex digit is exactly four bits. Write hex literals with 0x; print with %x:
日本語
A bit 位 is a single 0 or 1; numbers are stored in binary 二进制. Bitwise 按位 operators work on the bits directly: & AND, | OR, ^ XOR, << shift left (×2 each step), >> shift right (÷2).
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
int a = 12; // 1100
int b = 10; // 1010
printf("%d\n", a & b); // 8 AND -> 1000
printf("%d\n", a | b); // 14 OR -> 1110
printf("%d\n", a ^ b); // 6 XOR -> 0110
printf("%d\n", a << 1); // 24 left shift
printf("%d\n", a >> 1); // 6 right shift
return 0;
}
Hexadecimal 十六进制 (base 16) writes binary compactly: one hex digit is exactly four bits. Write hex literals with 0x; print with %x:
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
printf("%d\n", 0xFF); // 255 (0x marks a hex literal)
printf("%x\n", 255); // ff
printf("%x\n", 12); // c
return 0;
}
Bitwise operators work on the bits of integers
13.2
Run-length encoding
English
Run-length encoding (RLE) is a simple compression 压缩 method: replace each run 游程 of repeated characters with a count and the character. It is lossless 无损 — the original is fully recoverable.
Common mistakes
& is bitwise AND and && is logical AND — do not confuse them.
A left shift << 1 doubles a value; a right shift >> 1 halves it.
Bit n has value 1 << n (C has no ** power operator); check a bit with (x >> n) & 1.
日本語
Run-length encoding (RLE) is a simple compression 压缩 method: replace each run 游程 of repeated characters with a count and the character. It is lossless 无损 — the original is fully recoverable.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main(void) {
char *s = "aaabbc";
int n = strlen(s);
for (int i = 0; i < n; ) {
char c = s[i];
int run = 0;
while (i < n && s[i] == c) { run++; i++; }
printf("%d%c", run, c); // 3a2b1c
}
printf("\n");
return 0;
}
Common mistakes
& is bitwise AND and && is logical AND — do not confuse them.
A left shift << 1 doubles a value; a right shift >> 1 halves it.
Bit n has value 1 << n (C has no ** power operator); check a bit with (x >> n) & 1.
The preprocessor 预处理器 runs before compiling. #define makes a macro 宏 — plain text replaced everywhere. const makes a constant 常量 that cannot change. static inside a function keeps a variable's value between calls. An enum (enumeration 枚举) names a set of integers starting at 0.
Bigger programs split across files: declarations go in a header 头文件 file (mine.h), included with #include "mine.h" — quotes mean your own file, < > means the standard library. An include guard (#ifndef MINE_H / #define MINE_H / #endif) stops a header being included twice.
Common mistakes
#define does plain text replacement with no type checking; wrap macro bodies and arguments in parentheses.
A const value cannot be changed after it is set.
A static local variable keeps its value between calls to the function.
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX 100 // macro: text replaced before compiling
enum Color { RED, GREEN, BLUE }; // named integers 0, 1, 2
int next_id(void) {
static int count = 0; // keeps its value between calls
count++;
return count;
}
int main(void) {
const double PI = 3.14; // cannot be changed
printf("%d %.2f\n", MAX, PI); // 100 3.14
printf("%d %d %d\n", RED, GREEN, BLUE); // 0 1 2
int a = next_id();
int b = next_id();
printf("%d %d\n", a, b); // 1 2
return 0;
}
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