English Grammar · B2 · ⁨דקדוק אנגלי · B2⁩

When telling stories, English uses a set of narrative tenses in combination. The most basic two are:

• Simple Past: The main actions that advance the plot (one after another).
• Past Continuous: Setting the background, describing what was happening at that time.

（冠词）The 太阳sun （过去进行）was 照耀shining 当...时when 我们we 出发left.

We set off while the sun was shining brightly. (Background + main action)

她She （过去进行）was 做饭cooking 当...时when （冠词）the 电话phone 响了rang.

Her phone rang while she was cooking.

Note A long background action uses the past continuous (was cooking); a short action interrupting it uses the simple past (rang).

To indicate an action that occurred before another past action, use the past perfect (had + past participle).

当...时When 我们we 到达arrived （冠词）, the 电影film （过去完成）had 已经already 开始started.

By the time we arrived, the film had already started. (Started first, arrived later)

Combination in Narrative:

• Earliest → Past Perfect (had started).
• Later → Simple Past (arrived).
• Background → Past Continuous (was raining).

Note These three tenses combined clearly convey the timeline of a story.

The past perfect continuous (had been + V-ing) emphasizes an action that continued up until a specific point in the past.

她She （过去）was 累tired 因为because 她she （过去完成）had （进行）been 工作working 一整天all day.

She was tired because she had been working all day.

Difference from Past Perfect:

• Past Perfect Continuous: Emphasizes the continuous process / duration (had been working — kept doing it).
• Past Perfect: Emphasizes completion / result (had finished — got it done).

Note Stative verbs (know, be) do not take the continuous form: use had known, not ~~had been knowing~~.

Common Errors

• ❌ ~~When the phone rang, she cooked dinner.~~ (Meaning: "was cooking") → ✓ …she was cooking dinner. — Using simple past implies she started cooking after the phone rang.
• ❌ ~~While I walked home, I was meeting a friend.~~ → ✓ While I was walking home, I met a friend. — Long background actions use continuous tense; short actions use simple past. Do not reverse this.
• ❌ ~~She had finished the report, then she had sent it.~~ → ✓ She finished the report, then sent it. — When narrating in chronological order, simple past is sufficient; past perfect is only used to look back at an earlier event.
• ❌ ~~It was the first time I saw snow.~~ → ✓ It was the first time I had seen snow. — "First time" in past narration requires past perfect.

Future Continuous indicates an action that will be in progress at a specific moment in the future.

Structure: will be + 动词-ing

这个时候This time 明天tomorrow 我, I 将will （进行）be 飞flying 去to 巴黎Paris.

At this time tomorrow, I will be flying to Paris.

不要Don't 打电话call 在at 八点eight 我们; we 将will （进行）be 吃having 晚饭dinner.

Don't call at eight; we'll be having dinner then.

Note: It is also frequently used to politely ask about someone's plans: Will you be using the car tonight?

Future Perfect indicates an action that will be completed before a specific moment in the future.

Structure: will have + 过去分词, often used with by + future time.

到...时By 明年next year 我, I 将will （完成）have 完成finished 我的my 学业studies.

By next year, I will have graduated.

他们They 将will （完成）have 离开left 在...之前by ...时候the time 你you 到达arrive.

They will have left by the time you arrive.

Note: Common collocation by + time point (e.g., by 2030, by then, by the time…), meaning "by that time."

Common Errors

• ❌ ~~By 2030, I will finish my degree.~~ → ✓ By 2030, I will have finished my degree. — "by + future time" is a strong signal for future perfect.
• ❌ ~~This time tomorrow I will fly to Paris.~~ → ✓ …I will be flying to Paris. — "Action in progress at a future moment" uses will be + -ing; will fly merely states a decision.
• ❌ ~~I will have finish it by Friday.~~ → ✓ I will have finished it. — Past participle follows will have.
• ❌ ~~When you will arrive, I will have cooked dinner.~~ → ✓ When you arrive, I will have cooked dinner. — Time clauses still take simple present; no exceptions even with advanced main clauses.

Third Conditional discusses the past—an unreal assumption and its hypothetical result.

Structure: If + 过去完成时, would have + 过去分词

如果If 我I （过去完成）had 学习studied 我, I 会would （完成）have 通过passed.

If I had studied, I would have passed. (But I didn't study, and I didn't pass)

Note: It expresses a hypothesis contrary to past facts; often conveys regret or blame. Abbreviations: I'd have, would've.

Mixed Conditional mixes different times. The most common type is: Past cause → Present result.

Structure: If + 过去完成时, would + 动词原形

如果If 我I （过去完成）had 存saved 钱money 我, I 会would （是）be 富有rich 现在now.

If I had saved money, I would be rich now. (Past cause, present result)

Note: Use would + base verb in the main clause (referring to present), not would have (which refers to the past).

Comparing all four conditionals together:

• Zero Conditional: If + present, present. (Universal truths)
• First Conditional: If + present, will + base verb. (Real future)
• Second Conditional: If + past, would + base verb. (Unreal present)
• Third Conditional: If + past perfect, would have + past participle. (Unreal past)

如果If 我I 是were 你you 我, I 会would 道歉apologize.

If I were you, I would apologize. (Second conditional)

Note: Identify the tense of the if-clause: present / past / past perfect determines the conditional type.

Common Errors

• ❌ ~~If I would have known, I would have come.~~ → ✓ If I had known, I would have come. — Never use would in the if-clause; this is the most frequent error in spoken English (especially influenced by American TV dramas).
• ❌ ~~If I had studied, I would pass the exam yesterday.~~ → ✓ …I would have passed the exam. — Past results require would have + past participle.
• Mixed conditionals are not "random mixing": Only logical combinations like past cause → present result (If I had saved money, I would be rich now) work correctly.
• Decoding abbreviations: I'd followed by have + past participle → I'd = I would; I'd followed directly by a past participle → I'd = I had. I'd have helped (would) vs. I'd finished (had).

wish expresses a desire or regret. For dissatisfaction with the present, use past simple (subjunctive) after wish.

Structure: wish + 一般过去时

我I 但愿wish 我I 有had 更多more 时间time.

I wish I had more time. (But I don't)

她She 但愿wishes 她she 住lived 在by （冠词）the 海边sea.

She wishes she lived by the sea. (But she doesn't)

Note: Like the second conditional, the verb be is commonly were: I wish I were taller.

Two advanced usages:

• Regret about the past: wish + 过去完成时 (should have… but didn't).
• Dissatisfaction with others' behavior / desire for change: wish + 主语 + would.

我I 但愿wish 我I （过去完成）had 学习studied 更努力harder.

I wish I had studied harder. (Regret about the past)

我I 但愿wish 你you 会would 听listen.

I wish you could listen. (Dissatisfaction with others' behavior)

Note: if only functions like wish but with stronger emphasis: If only I had known!

Common Errors

• ❌ ~~I wish I have more time.~~ → ✓ I wish I had more time. — Tense must "step back" after wish.
• ❌ ~~I wish I studied harder last year.~~ → ✓ I wish I had studied harder last year. — Regrets about the past require past perfect.
• ❌ ~~I wish I would be taller.~~ → ✓ I wish I were taller. — wish + would applies only to dissatisfaction with others' behavior, never oneself.
• ❌ ~~I wish you will pass the exam.~~ → ✓ I hope you pass the exam. — Wishes for real possibilities use hope; wish + clause expresses "unreality" (except fixed phrases like I wish you good luck).

The passive voice can be used in any tense—simply change the form of be, which is always followed by a past participle.

（冠词）The 桥bridge （完成）has （被动）been 修理repaired.

This bridge has already been repaired. (Present Perfect Passive)

（冠词）The 工作work 将will （被动）be 完成done 很快soon.

The work will soon be completed. (Future Passive)

Note: Regardless of the tense, the core of the passive structure is always be (changing) + past participle (unchanged).

When reporting general opinions or rumors without specifying who said it, we often use the passive reporting structure:

• It is said / believed / thought that + clause.
• Subject + is said / believed to + infinitive / base verb.

（形式主语）It （被动）is 说said （连词）that 他he 是is 非常very 富有rich.

He is said to be very rich.

他He （被动）is 说said （不定式）to 是be 非常very 富有rich.

It is said that he is very rich. (Same meaning, subject moved forward)

Note: Such structures are common in news and formal writing, allowing for objective reporting of unverified information.

Common Errors

• ❌ ~~The bridge has repaired.~~ → ✓ The bridge has been repaired. — In the perfect passive, been is easily omitted; without been, it means "the bridge repaired something else".
• ❌ ~~The problem must be solve.~~ → ✓ The problem must be solved. — Modal passive = modal verb + be + past participle.
• ❌ ~~He is said that he is rich.~~ → ✓ It is said that he is rich. / He is said to be rich. — The two "said" structures cannot be combined.
• Additional: There is also a continuous passive — am / is / are being + past participle: The road is being repaired. (The road is currently being repaired.)

When reporting a question, the word order changes back to statement word order (subject + verb), and the question mark is removed.

• Yes/No questions → introduced by if / whether.
• Wh- questions → introduced by the original question word (what, where…).

她She 问asked 哪里where 我I 住lived.

She asked me where I lived. (Original: "Where do you live?")

他He 问asked 是否if 我I （过去）was 忙busy.

He asked me if I was busy. (Original: "Are you busy?")

Note: In indirect questions, auxiliary verbs do / does / did are not used, and there is no inversion: ~~where did I live~~ ✗ → where I lived ✓.

When reporting a command, request, or suggestion, use tell / ask / advise + someone + (not) to + base verb.

她She 叫told 我me （不定式）to 等wait.

She told me to wait a moment. (Original: "Wait.")

他He 请asked 我me 不要not to （是）be 迟到late.

He asked me not to be late. (Original: "Please don't be late.")

Note: Negative commands use not to: asked me not to go (asked me not to go).

Common Errors

• ❌ ~~He asked me am I busy.~~ → ✓ He asked me if I was busy. — You cannot simply insert the original sentence; it must become if + statement word order.
• ❌ ~~She said me to wait.~~ → ✓ She told me to wait. — For reporting commands, use tell / ask / advise + person + to do; say cannot take this construction.
• ❌ ~~He told me don't be late.~~ → ✓ He told me not to be late. — Negative commands become not to; don't cannot be inserted directly into reported speech.
• ❌ ~~She suggested me to go home.~~ → ✓ She suggested that I (should) go home. / She suggested going home. — suggest cannot be followed by "person + to do".

When speculating about the past, use modal verb + have + past participle. When you are certain:

• must have + past participle: Must have been… (in the past).
• can't have + past participle: Cannot have been… (in the past).

他He 一定must （完成）have 忘记forgotten.

He must have forgotten. (A definite positive speculation about the past)

她She 不可能can't （完成）have 看见seen 我们us.

She can't have seen us.

Note: Negative speculation uses can't have, not mustn't have.

should have + past participle indicates "should have done but didn’t

我I 本该should （完成）have 学习studied 更努力harder.

I should have studied harder. (Regret)

你You 本不该shouldn't （完成）have 说said 那that.

You shouldn't have said that. (Criticism)

Note: It refers to something not done (or done) in the past that is now regretted.

could have / might have + past participle indicates something that was possible in the past (but not certain).

他们They 可能might （完成）have 错过missed （冠词）the 火车train.

They may have missed the train.

（它）It 本可能could （完成）have 是been 更糟worse.

Things could have been worse.

Note: could have can also mean "could have done but didn't": I could have helped, but I didn't. (I could have helped, but I didn't.)

Common Errors

• ❌ ~~He must forgot.~~ → ✓ He must have forgotten. — Speculation about the past requires "modal + have + past participle"; there is no form like "must forgot".
• ❌ ~~I should have went.~~ / Mishearing as oral speech ~~should of gone~~ → ✓ I should have gone. — After have comes the past participle; connected speech sounds like "of," but it must be written as "have."
• ❌ ~~I could help you yesterday, but I was busy.~~ → ✓ I could have helped you yesterday… — "Could have done" expresses "could have but didn't"; could + base verb only expresses general ability in the past.
• ❌ ~~You should had called.~~ → ✓ You should have called. — After a modal verb always comes the base form "have," never "had."

Relative clauses are divided into two types, distinguished by whether the information is essential:

• Restrictive (defining): Provides essential information, identifying "which one," with no comma.
• Non-restrictive (non-defining): Provides extra information; removing it does not affect identification, so it is set off by commas.

（冠词）The 男人man （关系代词）who 打电话called 是is 我的my 老板boss.

The man who called is my boss. (Restrictive: identifies which man)

我的My 老板boss （关系代词）, who 是is 非常very 友善kind 打电话, called 我me.

My boss called me, and he is a very nice person. (Non-restrictive: supplementary information)

Note: A comma signals a non-restrictive clause, indicating the information is an aside.

There are also differences in the choice of relative pronouns between the two types of clauses:

• Restrictive: Use who / that for people, which / that for things; may be omitted when functioning as an object.
• Non-restrictive: Use who for people, which for things; that cannot be used, and it cannot be omitted.

这This 书book （关系代词）, which 我I 读read 去年last year 是, is 优秀excellent.

*I read this book last year, which was excellent. (Non-restrictive, use which)

Note: that is never used in non-restrictive clauses: ~~My boss, that is kind, …~~ ✗ → My boss, who is kind, … ✓.

Common Errors

• ❌ ~~My mother who lives in Beijing is a teacher.~~ → ✓ My mother**, who** lives in Beijing**,** is a teacher. — Unique people or things (mother, Beijing, sun) can only take non-restrictive clauses; omitting commas implies "you have several mothers".
• ❌ ~~He failed the exam, it made his parents angry.~~ → ✓ …the exam**, which** made his parents angry. — A comma cannot directly join two sentences; a comma plus which refers to the entire preceding situation.
• ❌ ~~My boss, I met yesterday, is kind.~~ → ✓ My boss, who(m) I met yesterday, is kind. — The relative pronoun in a non-restrictive clause cannot be omitted.
• Commas must appear in pairs: When a clause is inserted mid-sentence, it requires commas on both sides: My boss, who is kind, called me.

The causative structure expresses having someone else do something for you, rather than doing it yourself.

Structure: have + 宾语 + 过去分词

我I （使役）had 我的my 头发hair 剪cut 昨天yesterday.

I got my hair cut yesterday. (Not by myself)

我们We （be）are （使役）having 我们的our 房子house 粉刷painted.

We are getting the house painted. (By someone else)

Note: Pay attention to word order: have + object + past participle. I had my car repaired. (I sent it to be fixed) differs from I repaired my car. (I did it myself).

get + object + past participle functions similarly to have, but is more informal.

我I 需要need to （使役）get 我的my 手机phone 修理fixed.

*I need to get my phone repaired.

她She （使役）got 她的her 照片photo 拍taken.

She got a photo taken. (By someone else)

Note: In causative structures, have and get are largely interchangeable; get carries a more casual, conversational tone.

Common Errors

• ❌ ~~I cut my hair yesterday.~~ (Actually at the salon) → ✓ I had my hair cut yesterday. — Using the active voice implies you cut it yourself with scissors.
• ❌ Incorrect word order: ~~I had cut my hair~~ is the past perfect tense ("I had already cut it before then"), not causative; the causative form is have + object + past participle: I had my hair cut.
• ❌ ~~I had my hair cutted.~~ → ✓ …cut. — The past participle in the causative structure must also be correct: cut–cut–cut remains unchanged.
• To ask someone to do it: have + person + base form, get + person + to do: I'll have John fix it. / I'll get John to fix it.

These conjunctions express contrast / concession ("although...but..."). They are followed by a complete sentence (subject + verb).

• although / though: Although. even though: Stronger tone, meaning "even if / despite the fact that".

虽然Although （天气it）it （过去）was 下雨raining 我们, we 去went 外出out.

*Although it was raining, we still went out.

他He 通过passed 尽管, even though 他he 没有hadn't 学习studied.

*Even though he didn't study, he still passed.

Note: though can also appear at the end of a sentence to mean "however" (informal): It's expensive. I like it, though.

despite and in spite of have the same meaning as although, but they are followed by nouns / gerunds, not complete sentences.

尽管Despite （冠词）the 雨rain 我们, we 去went 外出out.

*Despite the rain, we still went out.

尽管In spite of 是being 累tired 她, she 继续kept 工作working.

*Despite being very tired, she continued working.

Note: Key distinction: although + sentence; despite / in spite of + noun / -ing. ~~despite it was raining~~ ✗ → despite the rain ✓.

however and nevertheless are conjunctive adverbs that connect two sentences, usually placed at the beginning of a sentence followed by a comma.

（它）It （过去）was 贵expensive 然而. However 我们, we 买bought 它it.

*It was expensive. However, we still bought it.

Note: However typically forms its own sentence separated by a comma; do not use it to directly join two clauses like but.

Common Errors

• ❌ ~~Although it was raining, but we went out.~~ → ✓ Keep only one: Although it was raining, we went out. / It was raining, but we went out. — Chinese "although...but..." appears in pairs, but English allows only one.
• ❌ ~~Despite of the rain…~~ → ✓ despite the rain / in spite of the rain — despite never takes of; in spite always takes of; do not mix them.
• ❌ ~~Even he studied hard, he failed.~~ → ✓ Even though he studied hard… — even alone is not a conjunction; use even though / even if.
• ❌ ~~It was expensive, however we bought it.~~ → ✓ It was expensive. However, we bought it. (Or using a semicolon: …expensive**; however,** we…) — However cannot join two clauses with just a comma like but.

At B2 level, the difficulty with articles lies in distinguishing generic reference from specific reference:

• Generic reference (whole categories): Plural / uncountable nouns, no the.
• Specific reference (particular ones): Use the.

老虎Tigers 是are 危险dangerous.

*Tigers are dangerous. (Refers to tigers in general, no the)

（特指）The 老虎tigers 在at （冠词）the 动物园zoo 是are 困倦sleepy.

*The tigers in the zoo are sleepy. (Specific, use the)

Note: Abstract nouns are also used without the for generic reference: Love is important. (Love is important.) But the love of a mother uses the when referring specifically.

In many collocations, article usage is fixed and must be memorized as a whole:

• No article: go to bed / school / work, by car / bus, at home, have breakfast.
• Use the: in the morning, play the piano, the same, listen to the radio.

我I 去go （介词）to 上班work 乘by 公交bus.

*I go to work by bus. (Neither go to work nor by bus takes an article)

Note: These collocations lack much logical reasoning; memorizing them as fixed phrases is most effective.

Common Errors

• ❌ ~~the China / the Japan~~ → ✓ China / Japan; but ✓ the US, the UK, the Netherlands, the Philippines — Only countries with plural forms or "organizational" names take the.
• ❌ ~~Most of people agree.~~ → ✓ Most people agree. / Most of the people in this room agree. — most goes directly before a noun; most of must be followed by the / my / these etc.
• Distinguish (British English): be in hospital (admitted as a patient) vs. go to the hospital (go to the building, e.g., to visit someone). The same applies to in prison / at school.
• the + adjective refers to a class of people: The rich should help the poor.

so and such are used to intensify meaning ('so...that' or 'such...that'), often followed by that to introduce a result.

• so + adjective / adverb (+ that …).
• such + (a/an) + adjective + noun (+ that …).

（它）It （过去）was 如此so 冷cold 以至于that （冠词）the 湖lake 结冰froze.

It is so cold that the lake has frozen over.

（它）It （过去）was 如此such 一个a 好good 电影film 以至于that 我I 哭了cried.

That movie was so good that I cried.

Note: Follow so with an adjective (so cold); follow such with a noun phrase (such a good film).

To express "Me too" or "Me neither," English uses a short inverted structure where the auxiliary verb must match the previous sentence:

• Affirmative agreement: So + auxiliary verb + subject (So do I / So am I / So can I).
• Negative agreement: Neither + auxiliary verb + subject (Neither do I / Neither am I).

"I like tea." — 也So （助动词）do 我I.

"I like tea." — "Me too."

"I can't swim." — 也不Neither （助动词）can 我I.

"I can't swim." — "Neither can I."

Note: The auxiliary verb must match the tense/verb of the previous sentence: if the previous sentence uses are → So are they; if it uses don't → Neither do I.

Common Errors

• ❌ "I love this song." — ~~So am I.~~ → ✓ So do I. — The agreeing auxiliary must match the previous sentence: main verbs → do / does / did; be → am / is; can → can.
• ❌ "I don't like it." — ~~Me too.~~ → ✓ Me neither. / Neither do I. — Do not use too for negative agreements.
• ❌ "I can't swim." — ~~So can't I.~~ → ✓ Neither can I. — Negative inversion begins with neither / nor, never so + negative.
• To emphasize "really," avoid using very + verb: ❌ ~~I very like it.~~ → ✓ I do like it. / I really like it. — Placing the auxiliary do before the verb creates emphasis.