AP Psychology · ⁨פסיכולוגיה - AP⁩

Learning Objective 1.1.A: Explain the relationship between heredity and environment in shaping behavior and mental processes.

• 1.1.A.1 Heredity and environmental factors interact to shape behavior and mental processes.
  • 1.1.A.1.i Heredity, or “nature,” refers to genetic or predisposed characteristics that influence physical, behavioral, and mental traits and processes.
  • 1.1.A.1.ii Environmental factors, or “nurture,” refers to the external factors that one experiences, such as family interactions or education.
    • Exclusion Statement: Specific information about genetics (genotype, phenotype, DNA, chromosomes, and recessive and dominant gene expression) is beyond the scope of the AP Psychology Exam.
• 1.1.A.2 The evolutionary perspective explores how natural selection affects the expression of behavior and mental processes to increase survival and reproductive success. Some theorists have sought to apply principles of the evolutionary perspective in ways that discriminate against others (eugenics).
• 1.1.A.3 Research on the effects of genes on individual behavior and mental processes is often conducted using twin studies, family studies, and adoption studies.

Learning Objective 1.2.A: Differentiate among the subsystems of the human nervous system and their functions.

• 1.2.A.1 The central nervous system includes the brain and the spinal cord and interacts with all processes in the body.
• 1.2.A.2 The peripheral nervous system relays messages from the central nervous system to the rest of the body and includes the autonomic and somatic nervous systems.
  • 1.2.A.2.i The autonomic nervous system governs processes that are involuntary and includes the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems.
  • 1.2.A.2.ii The somatic nervous system governs processes that are voluntary.

Learning Objective 1.4.A: Explain how the structures and functions of the brain apply to behavior and mental processes.

• 1.4.A.1 The brain stem (including the medulla) generally controls basic functioning such as breathing and heart rate.
• 1.4.A.2 The reticular activating system and the brain’s reward center generally control alertness, some voluntary movement, eye movement, and some types of learning, cognition, and emotion.
• 1.4.A.3 The cerebellum generally controls coordination of muscle movement, balance, and some forms of procedural learning.
• 1.4.A.4 The cerebral cortex is divided into two hemispheres and includes the limbic system (thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, hippocampus, amygdala), corpus callosum, and the lobes of the cortex.
  • 1.4.A.4.i The occipital lobes generally control visual information processing and are located in the rear of the brain.
  • 1.4.A.4.ii The temporal lobes generally control auditory and linguistic processing and are located on the sides of the brain.
  • 1.4.A.4.iii The parietal lobes generally control association areas, which process and organize information, and the somatosensory cortex, which processes touch sensitivity. These lobes are located near the back crown of the brain.
  • 1.4.A.4.iv The frontal lobes, located just behind the forehead, generally control linguistic processing, higher-order thinking, and executive functioning, especially in the prefrontal cortex. The motor cortex is located at the rear of the frontal lobes and controls most types of skeletal movement.
• 1.4.A.5 Split brain research, achieved by severing the corpus callosum (often a treatment for severe epilepsy), reveals that the right and left hemispheres of the brain may specialize in different activities and functions.
  • 1.4.A.5.i Areas of the brain that affect language are typically located in the left hemisphere and include Broca’s area (responsible for speech production) and Wernicke’s area (responsible for speech comprehension). Damage to these parts of the brain can lead to aphasia.
  • 1.4.A.5.ii Researchers test for cortex specialization with split-brain patients by showing information in each visual field, taking advantage of the brain’s contralateral hemispheric organization.
• 1.4.A.6 Brain plasticity is the ability of the brain to rewire itself or modify or create new connections throughout development and generally allows for the function of a damaged part of the brain to be assumed by a different part of the brain.
• 1.4.A.7 Research on the brain is done using scans (including EEG and fMRI), case studies, and surgical procedures (such as lesioning) to promote understanding of how the different structures of the brain work and how the brain functions together as a whole.

Learning Objective 1.5.A: Explain how the sleep/wake cycle affects behavior and mental processes throughout the day and night.

• 1.5.A.1 Consciousness has varying levels of awareness of thoughts, feelings, behavior, and events in individuals’ internal and external worlds. Sleep and wakefulness are two types of consciousness.
• 1.5.A.2 The sleep/wake cycle is a circadian rhythm, which in humans is about a 24-hour cycle. Jet lag and shift work are disruptions of the circadian rhythm.
• 1.5.A.3 The stages of sleep are identified by their specific EEG patterns.
  • 1.5.A.3 .i NREM sleep occurs in Stages 1 through 3 and decreases in duration throughout the cycle. Hypnagogic sensations occur as one enters Initial Stage 1 sleep.
  • 1.5.A.3 .ii REM sleep is considered paradoxical because it produces waves similar to wakefulness, but the body is at its most relaxed. Dreaming typically occurs in REM sleep. The frequency of REM sleep typically increases as the cycle progresses. When deprived of REM sleep, REM rebound can occur.
• 1.5.A.4 Theories regarding the structure and function of dreams include activation-synthesis and consolidation theory.
  • Exclusion Statement: The psychoanalytic theory of dreams is outside of the scope of the AP Psychology Exam.
• 1.5.A.5 Memory consolidation and restoration are current theories about why sleep occurs. These theories suggest that sleep is useful for organizing and consolidating memories or restoring depleted resources used throughout a given day.
• 1.5.A.6 Many disorders interrupt healthy sleep, and their effects on waking behavior and health vary. Sleep disruptions can affect physical and cognitive performance during wakefulness. Treating sleep disorders and following regular schedules for sleeping can improve waking performance and overall well-being. Disorders commonly studied in introductory psychology include insomnia, narcolepsy, REM sleep behavior disorder, sleep apnea, and somnambulism.
  • Exclusion Statement: The AP Psychology Exam will only address the listed disorders in EK 1.5.A.6.

Learning Objective 2.1.A: Explain how internal and external factors influence perception.

• 2.1.A.1 Perception is influenced by whether one primarily relies on external sensory information (bottom-up processing) or internal prior expectations (top-down processing).
• 2.1.A.2 Schemas and perceptual sets are internal factors that filter perceptions of the world.
• 2.1.A.3 Contexts, experiences, and cultural experiences and expectations are external factors that filter perceptions of the world.
• 2.1.A.4 Perceptual principles proposed by Gestalt psychology (closure, figure and ground, proximity, and similarity) help explain how humans organize their perceptual world.
• 2.1.A.5 Attention is an interaction of sensation and perception that is affected by internal and external processes.
  • 2.1.A.5.i Some experiences of attention can be selective, such as with the cocktail party effect, where people attend to mentions of their names or specific topics in loud or distracting environments.
  • 2.1.A.5.ii Inattention can lead to a type of “blindness” to aspects of the environment. Change blindness occurs when changes to the environment are not perceived due to inattention.

Learning Objective 2.1.B: Explain how visual perceptual processes produce correct or incorrect interpretations of stimuli.

• 2.1.B.1 Binocular depth cues of retinal disparity (the difference between the images projecting onto the retina) and convergence (the merging of the retinal images by the brain) utilize images from each eye to provide perception of depth.
• 2.1.B.2 Monocular depth cues (relative clarity, relative size, texture gradient, linear perspective, and interposition) give the illusion of depth on flat or two-dimensional surfaces.
  • Exclusion Statement: The AP Psychology Exam will only address the listed monocular depth cues in EK 2.1.B.2.
• 2.1.B.3 Visual perceptual constancies maintain the perception of an object even when the images of the object in the visual field change.
• 2.1.B.4 Apparent movement can be visually perceived even when objects are not actually moving.

Learning Objective 2.1.A: Explain how internal and external factors influence perception.

• 2.1.A.1 Perception is influenced by whether one primarily relies on external sensory information (bottom-up processing) or internal prior expectations (top-down processing).
• 2.1.A.2 Schemas and perceptual sets are internal factors that filter perceptions of the world.
• 2.1.A.3 Contexts, experiences, and cultural experiences and expectations are external factors that filter perceptions of the world.
• 2.1.A.4 Perceptual principles proposed by Gestalt psychology (closure, figure and ground, proximity, and similarity) help explain how humans organize their perceptual world.
• 2.1.A.5 Attention is an interaction of sensation and perception that is affected by internal and external processes.
  • 2.1.A.5.i Some experiences of attention can be selective, such as with the cocktail party effect, where people attend to mentions of their names or specific topics in loud or distracting environments.
  • 2.1.A.5.ii Inattention can lead to a type of “blindness” to aspects of the environment. Change blindness occurs when changes to the environment are not perceived due to inattention.

Learning Objective 2.1.B: Explain how visual perceptual processes produce correct or incorrect interpretations of stimuli.

• 2.1.B.1 Binocular depth cues of retinal disparity (the difference between the images projecting onto the retina) and convergence (the merging of the retinal images by the brain) utilize images from each eye to provide perception of depth.
• 2.1.B.2 Monocular depth cues (relative clarity, relative size, texture gradient, linear perspective, and interposition) give the illusion of depth on flat or two-dimensional surfaces.
  • Exclusion Statement: The AP Psychology Exam will only address the listed monocular depth cues in EK 2.1.B.2.
• 2.1.B.3 Visual perceptual constancies maintain the perception of an object even when the images of the object in the visual field change.
• 2.1.B.4 Apparent movement can be visually perceived even when objects are not actually moving.

Learning Objective 2.2.A: Explain how psychological concepts and theories account for thinking, problem-solving, judgment, and decision-making.

• 2.2.A.1 Concepts form the basis of thought. Prototypes are the ideal example for any given concept.
• 2.2.A.2 People form and modify schemas, or frameworks for thinking, through assimilation (taking in new information but not changing the schema in light of it) and accommodation (taking in new information and changing the schema to incorporate the new information).
• 2.2.A.3 Algorithms address problems by attempting all possible solutions until the correct one is found.
• 2.2.A.4 Heuristics address problems by using mental shortcuts to make judgments. Using heuristics can lead to errors in judgment when decisions are made according to prior expectations or stereotypes (representativeness heuristic) or recalling the first or most vivid example that comes to mind (availability heuristic).
• 2.2.A.5 Decision making can be influenced by prior experiences that were successful (mental set) or circumstances surrounding a decision (priming and framing).
• 2.2.A.6 Cognitive processes such as gambler’s fallacy and sunk-cost fallacy can hinder people from making good decisions.
• 2.2.A.7 Executive functions are cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behaviors and experience critical thinking.
• 2.2.A.8 Creativity is a way of thinking that includes generating novel ideas and engaging in divergent (versus convergent) thinking. Creative thinking is hindered by functional fixedness.

Learning Objective 2.3.A: Explain how the types, structures, and processes of memory work.

• 2.3.A.1 Memories for learned knowledge, events, and experiences are differentiated by how they are processed by, stored in, and retrieved by the brain.
  • 2.3.A.1.i Explicit memory is a type of memory that is more easily described or explained to others. Types of explicit memory include episodic and semantic.
  • 2.3.A.1.ii Implicit memory is more challenging to describe or explain to others. Procedural memory is a type of implicit memory for procedures and processes.
  • 2.3.A.1.iii Prospective memory is a type of memory related to future actions.
• 2.3.A.2 Long-term potentiation, a process by which synaptic connections between neurons become stronger with frequent activation, is a biological process for memory.
• 2.3.A.3 The working memory model examines how our primary memory system—working memory— engages in a dynamic interaction with several components, namely the central executive, phonological loop, and visuospatial sketchpad, to process information into long-term memory.
• 2.3.A.4 The multi-store model proposes three interacting systems (sensory memory [including iconic and echoic memory], short-term memory, and long-term memory) that information must pass through to be remembered. This model focuses on the impact of automatic and effortful processing on memory encoding, storage, and retrieval.
• 2.3.A.5 The levels of processing model proposes that memory is encoded on three levels from shallowest to deepest: structural, phonemic, and semantic.

Learning Objective 2.4.A: Explain how different encoding processes work to get information into memory.

• 2.4.A.1 Encoding involves processes and strategies to get information into memory. How information is encoded can determine how effectively information is stored and retrieved.
• 2.4.A.2 Mnemonic devices, such as method of loci, are processes that aid in encoding information into working and long-term memory.
• 2.4.A.3 Encoding can be improved by the process of grouping information together into meaningful chunks (“chunking”), categories, or hierarchies.
• 2.4.A.4 The spacing effect is a process that can cause significant differences in encoding and memory consolidation depending on whether the information is encoded all at once (massed practice) or distributed over time (distributed practice).
• 2.4.A.5 Encoding processes can be affected by the order of how the information is presented, called the serial position effect. The serial position effect predicts that information presented at the beginning of a list (primacy effect) or the end of a list (recency effect) will be more memorable than information presented in the middle of a list.

Learning Objective 2.5.A: Explain how memory storage processes retain information in memory.

• 2.5.A.1 Sensory memory, short-term memory, working memory, and long-term memory are processes that differ in storage duration, capacity, and content.
• 2.5.A.2 Storage may be prolonged by rehearsing information over time (maintenance rehearsal). Rehearsing information over time in ways that promote meaning (elaborative rehearsal) helps with memory retention.
• 2.5.A.3 Some people demonstrate highly superior autobiographical memory which may indicate that there are biological processes for superior memory storage. Autobiographical memory may also explain why memories connected to our own lives or selves are more memorable.
• 2.5.A.4 Storage processes may be negatively affected by physical impairment and developmental limitations, such as amnesia (retrograde and anterograde), Alzheimer’s disease, and infantile amnesia.

Learning Objective 2.6.A: Explain how memory retrieval processes get information out of memory.

• 2.6.A.1 The process of memory retrieval occurs through recall (remembering without cues) or recognition (which relies on retrieval cues).
• 2.6.A.2 The process of memory retrieval can be enhanced when people are in the same environmental space (context-dependent memory), mood (mood-congruent memory), or physical state (state-dependent memory) as they were when they encoded the information to be retrieved.
• 2.6.A.3 Successful retrieval is more likely when using retrieval practice processes, including testing effect and metacognition.

Learning Objective 2.7.A: Explain possible reasons why memory failure or errors may occur.

• 2.7.A.1 The forgetting curve shows that time is a significant factor in forgetting. Forgetting occurs rapidly after initial learning and levels off over time.
• 2.7.A.2 Many memories are difficult to retrieve due to encoding failure, interference (proactive or retroactive), or inadequate retrieval (i.e., tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon).
• 2.7.A.3 Psychodynamic theorists believe that information or memories can be forgotten to defend the ego from distress (repression).
• 2.7.A.4 The accuracy of memories may be affected by the misinformation effect, source amnesia, or constructive memory (via memory consolidation and imagination inflation).

Learning Objective 2.8.A: Explain how modern and historical theories describe intelligence.

• 2.8.A.1 Throughout history, consensus about how to define and measure intelligence continues to be elusive and can be subject to bias. Researchers debate whether intelligence is a general ability (called g) or is comprised of multiple abilities.

Learning Objective 2.8.B: Explain how intelligence is measured.

• 2.8.B.1 Early formal intelligence tests yielded an intelligence quotient (IQ), which divided mental age by chronological age. In modern times, IQ scores are often used to identify students for educational services.
  • Exclusion Statement: Labeling or describing cognitive abilities and disabilities are outside the scope of the AP Psychology Exam.
• 2.8.B.2 All psychological assessments, including intelligence tests, should adhere to sound psychometric principles to be considered useful.
  • 2.8.B.2.i A test is said to be standardized when it is administered using consistent procedures and environments.
  • 2.8.B.2.ii A test is considered valid if it measures what it is designed to measure. Types of validity include construct and predictive.
  • 2.8.B.2.iii A test is considered reliable if it yields similar results each time it is administered. Types of reliability include test-retest and split-half.
• 2.8.B.3 Researchers strive to develop assessments of intelligence that are socio-culturally responsive to reduce stereotype threat and potential inequity that may occur due to stereotype lift.

Learning Objective 2.8.C: Explain how systemic issues relate to the quantitative and qualitative uses of intelligence assessments.

• 2.8.C.1 IQ scores across much of the world have generally increased over time (Flynn Effect) due to societal factors, such as higher socioeconomic status and access to better health care and better nutrition.
• 2.8.C.2 IQ scores tend to vary more within a group than between groups. Personal and sociocultural biases can impact the interpretation of individual IQ scores and the score’s relationship with other outcomes. Poverty, discrimination, and educational inequities can negatively influence intelligence scores of individuals and societal groups around the world.
• 2.8.C.3 Scores from intelligence tests have been used to limit access to jobs, military ranks, educational institutions, and immigration to the US.

Learning Objective 2.8.D: Explain how academic achievement is measured and experienced as compared to intelligence.

• 2.8.D.1 Some academic tests attempt to measure what someone knows (achievement tests) or predict how someone will perform in the future (aptitude tests).
• 2.8.D.2 People’s beliefs about whether intelligence is fixed from birth (fixed mindset) or malleable due to experience (growth mindset) can affect academic achievement.

Learning Objective 3.1.A: Explain how enduring themes inform developmental psychology.

• 3.1.A.1 Developmental psychology is concerned with both chronological order of development and/ or thematic issues in development across the lifespan. Thematic issues of interest to developmental psychologists include stability and change, nature and nurture, and continuous and discontinuous stages of development.

Learning Objective 3.1.B: Describe ways cross-sectional and longitudinal research design methods used in developmental psychology inform understanding about behavior and mental processes.

Learning Objective 3.2.A: Explain how physical development before birth applies to behavior and mental processes.

• 3.2.A.1 Teratogens, maternal illness, genetic mutations, hormonal, and environmental factors can influence the major physical and psychological milestones that occur during prenatal development.
  • Exclusion Statement: The stages of prenatal development (zygote, embryo, and fetus) are outside the scope of the AP Psychology Exam.

Learning Objective 3.2.B: Explain how physical development in infancy and childhood apply to behavior and mental processes.

• 3.2.B.1 Physical development in infancy and childhood happens in generally the same order, but the timing of the development can vary. The development of fine and gross motor coordination is among the major physical and psychological milestones that define infancy and childhood. These physical skills develop as children mature, allowing children to develop critical skills needed to become more independent.
• 3.2.B.2 Infants possess reflexes, like the rooting reflex, that indicate on-track physical and psychological milestone development.
• 3.2.B.3 Research using the visual cliff apparatus demonstrates an early ability in infants to perceive depth and an innovative way to assess infant responses.
• 3.2.B.4 Research suggests that critical or sensitive periods in infancy and childhood have strong developmental effects, especially for skills such as language. Some non-human animals will imprint on the first object they encounter as a means of survival.

Learning Objective 3.2.C: Explain how physical development in adolescence applies to behavior and mental processes.

• 3.2.C.1 The main physical and psychological milestones that occur in adolescence are the adolescent growth spurt and puberty, in which reproductive ability develops. Adolescents develop primary and secondary sex characteristics during this time, such as menarche and spermarche.

Learning Objective 3.2.D: Explain how physical development in adulthood applies to behavior and mental processes.

• 3.2.D.1 Adulthood spans most of the lifespan and is characterized by a general leveling off and then a varying decline in reproductive ability (i.e., menopause), mobility, flexibility, reaction time, and visual and auditory sensory acuity.

Learning Objective 3.3.A: Describe how sex and gender influence socialization and other aspects of development.

Learning Objective 3.5.A: Explain how key components of language and communication apply to behavior and mental processes.

• 3.5.A.1 Language is a shared (mutually agreed upon) system of arbitrary symbols (often expressed as and combined into phonemes, morphemes, and semantics) that are rule-governed (via grammar and syntax) and generative to produce an infinity of ideas.
  • Exclusion Statement: Pragmatics of language are outside the scope of the AP Psychology Exam.

Learning Objective 3.5.B: Explain how language develops in humans.

• 3.5.B.1 In language development across all cultures, people use nonverbal manual gestures (e.g., pointing) to communicate and develop formal language through specific stages (cooing, babbling, one-word stage, and telegraphic speech). People learning a language often make errors such as overgeneralization of language rules as they learn.

Learning Objective 3.6.A: Explain how social development relates to behavior and mental processes.

• 3.6.A.1 The ecological systems theory explores how the social environment influences development. The five systems in this theory are as follows: Bullet Microsystem (groups that have direct contact with the individual) Bullet Mesosystem (the relationships between groups in the microsystem) Bullet Exosystem (indirect factors in an individual’s life) Bullet Macrosystem (cultural events that affect the individuals and others around them) Bullet Chronosystem (the individual’s current stage of life).
• 3.6.A.2 Research has identified different parenting styles of caregivers, including authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive. Cultural differences exist in the ways these parenting styles affect outcomes in caregivers and children.
• 3.6.A.3 Research has identified different attachment styles demonstrated by infants and children, which vary by culture. The types of attachment infants and children display include secure and insecure (avoidant, anxious, and disorganized). Temperament is related to how children attach to caregivers.
  • 3.6.A.3.i Separation anxiety occurs when children express heightened anxiety or fear when away from a caregiver or in the presence of a stranger.
  • 3.6.A.3.ii Studies with monkeys demonstrate the importance of comfort over food in attachment.
• 3.6.A.4 Developmental psychologists study how peer relationships develop over time.
  • 3.6.A.4.i Children engage with peers via play (parallel and pretend).
  • 3.6.A.4.ii Adolescents gradually rely more on peer relationships as they age. As adolescents interact with peers, they demonstrate a type of egocentrism that is often demonstrated via the imaginary audience and the personal fable.
• 3.6.A.5 Developmental psychologists study how adults develop socially over time.
  • 3.6.A.5.i Culture plays a role in determining when adulthood begins and when major life events occur (social clock). Some cultures allow for a time of emerging adulthood as a transition from adolescence to adulthood.
  • 3.6.A.5.ii Relationships with other adults result in adults forming families or family-like relationships that should provide mutual support and care. Childhood attachment styles can affect how adults form attachments to other adults.
• 3.6.A.6 The stage theory of psychosocial development, which was a reconceptualization of the psychosexual theory, proposes that people must resolve psychosocial conflicts at each stage of the lifespan. The stages are as follows: Bullet Trust and mistrust Bullet Autonomy and shame and doubt Bullet Initiative and guilt Bullet Industry and inferiority Bullet Identity and role confusion Bullet Intimacy and isolation Bullet Generativity and stagnation Bullet Integrity and despair
  • Exclusion Statement: The psychosexual stage theory of development is outside of the scope of the AP Psychology Exam.
• 3.6.A.7 The experience of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) has effects on relationships people form throughout the lifespan. Sociocultural differences exist in what is considered an ACE and how ACEs affect outcomes people may experience.
• 3.6.A.8 Adolescents develop a sense of identity for who they will be as an adult through the processes of achievement, diffusion, foreclosure, and moratorium. Identity development also includes processes for developing identities such as racial/ethnic identity, gender identity, sexual orientation, religious identity, occupational identity, and familial identity, often through considering possible selves.

Learning Objective 3.7.A: Explain how classical conditioning applies to behavior and mental processes.

• 3.7.A.1 The behavioral perspective evolved from theories about learning via conditioning. Behaviorists have traditionally focused on observable behavior to the exclusion of mental processes.
• 3.7.A.2 Classical conditioning focuses on the association of one stimulus with another stimulus to elicit a response. Learning the association (also known as acquisition) involves a series of steps that demonstrate principles of associative learning.
  • 3.7.A.2.i The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) elicits an unconditioned response (UCR). This response becomes the conditioned response (CR) when it is performed in response to the conditioned stimulus (CS).
  • 3.7.A.2.ii The order of presentation of the CS with the UCS is important to successful acquisition.
  • 3.7.A.2.iii A CR can become extinct when the CS is no longer paired with the UCS. A formerly extinct CR can be spontaneously recovered when the CS is again presented after extinction.
  • 3.7.A.2.iv Stimulus discrimination and generalization have been demonstrated in studies of classical conditioning.
  • 3.7.A.2.v A CS can be used as a UCS in higher-order conditioning.
    • Exclusion Statement: Delayed conditioning, trace conditioning, simultaneous conditioning, and backward conditioning are outside the scope of the AP Psychology Exam.
• 3.7.A.3 Research has demonstrated that emotional responses can be classically conditioned. These findings form the basis of therapeutic interventions for many mental disorders, such as counterconditioning.
  • Exclusion Statement: The expectancy theory is outside the scope of the AP Psychology Exam.
• 3.7.A.4 Research on taste aversions, which are acquired through classical conditioning, demonstrates one-trial conditioning and biological preparedness. One-trial learning occurs when the association is acquired through one pairing of the stimulus and response and is not strengthened by further pairings. Biological preparedness refers to how animals are biologically predisposed to learning certain stimulus-response pairings more quickly than others.
• 3.7.A.5 Habituation occurs when organisms grow accustomed to and exhibit a diminished response to a repeated or enduring stimulus.

Learning Objective 3.8.A: Explain how operant conditioning applies to behavior and mental processes.

• 3.8.A.1 Operant conditioning focuses on associating consequences (reinforcement and punishment) with behaviors. The Law of Effect states that behaviors with reinforcing consequences are more likely to be repeated while behaviors with punishing consequences are not as likely to be repeated.
• 3.8.A.2 Reinforcement and punishment can be positive or negative. Reinforcers can be primary or secondary. Reinforcement discrimination and generalization have been demonstrated in studies of operant conditioning.
• 3.8.A.3 Reinforcement can be used to shape behavior (“shaping”) gradually through rewarding successive approximations of the desired behavior. Research with animals shows that only certain behaviors can be shaped through reinforcement (known as instinctive drift).
• 3.8.A.4 Superstitious behavior occurs when consequences reinforce unrelated behaviors. Learned helplessness occurs when organisms learn that they have no control over their experience of aversive consequences in a given situation.
• 3.8.A.5 The schedule with which reinforcement is delivered can determine the strength of the association between the consequence and the response. The two main types of reinforcement schedules are continuous and partial. Each type of reinforcement behavior can be graphed, resulting in a distinctive pattern on the graph (e.g., fixed-interval schedule produces a scalloped graph).
  • 3.8.A.5.i Continuous reinforcement schedules deliver reinforcement for each and every correct behavior.
  • 3.8.A.5.ii The partial reinforcement schedules focus on whether reinforcement is delivered on a time-based schedule (fixed- or variable-interval) or for the number of behaviors performed (fixed- or variable-ratio).

Learning Objective 3.9.A: Explain how social learning applies to behavior and mental processes.

• 3.9.A.1 Social learning theory proposes that learning can occur by observation and does not have to involve personal experience with a consequence (vicarious conditioning). Learning can occur by copying the behavior of models. The more similar a model is, the more likely the behavior is to be learned.

Learning Objective 3.9.B: Explain how cognitive factors in learning apply to behavior and mental processes.

• 3.9.B.1 Insight learning occurs when the solution to a problem occurs without any association, consequence, or model being present.
• 3.9.B.2 Latent learning occurs when information is learned without reinforcement but is not immediately evident. Latent learning is often demonstrated by cognitive maps.

Learning Objective 4.1.A: Explain how attribution theory applies to behavior and mental processes.

• 4.1.A.1 Attributions are how people explain behavior and mental processes of themselves and others. Dispositional attributions relate to internal qualities of others (such as intelligence or personality) while situational attributions relate to external circumstances that are experienced.
• 4.1.A.2 People demonstrate a predictable pattern of attributions called explanatory style. Explanatory style is how people explain good and bad events in their lives and in the lives of others. Explanatory style can be optimistic or pessimistic.
• 4.1.A.3 People are subject to biases in their attributions. Those biases include actor/ observer bias, fundamental attribution error, and self-serving bias, all of which can affect behavior and mental processes.

Learning Objective 4.1.B: Explain how locus of control (internal and external) applies to behavior and mental processes.

Learning Objective 4.1.C: Explain how person perception applies to behavior and mental processes.

• 4.1.C.1 People’s perception of how much they like something can be influenced by the mere exposure effect. The mere exposure effect occurs when people are exposed to a stimulus repeatedly over time, which causes them to like the stimulus more.
• 4.1.C.2 People can behave in ways that elicit behaviors from others that confirm their beliefs or perceptions about themselves or others (self-fulfilling prophecy).
• 4.1.C.3 Social comparison is a type of person perception that occurs when people evaluate themselves based on comparisons to other members of society or social circles. Social comparison can be upward or downward. People often judge their own sense of deprivation relative to others (relative deprivation).

Learning Objective 4.2.A: Explain how stereotypes and implicit attitudes contribute to the behaviors and mental processes of prejudice and discrimination.

• 4.2.A.1 A stereotype is a generalized concept about a group. Stereotypes can help reduce cognitive load when making decisions or judgments. Stereotypes can be the cause and/or result of biased perceptions and experiences and are frequently the basis of prejudiced attitudes and discriminatory behaviors.
• 4.2.A.2 Implicit attitudes are those that individuals hold but may be unaware of or may not acknowledge. Research has focused on how implicit attitudes reflect negative evaluations of others, as demonstrated by the just-world phenomenon, out-group homogeneity bias, in-group bias, or ethnocentrism.

Learning Objective 4.2.B: Explain how belief perseverance and cognitive dissonance apply to attitude formation and change.

• 4.2.B.1 Belief perseverance occurs when a belief persists even if evidence suggests it is not accurate. People experiencing belief perseverance may engage in confirmation bias, thereby clinging to an attitude or belief regardless of the evidence for or against it.
• 4.2.B.2 Cognitive dissonance refers to the mental discomfort that occurs when actions or attitudes are in conflict. People are motivated to reduce the discomfort by changing either actions or attitudes to be more in line with each other.

Learning Objective 4.3.A: Explain how the social situation affects behavior and mental processes.

• 4.3.A.1 Social norms define expectations and roles a society may have for its members in individual and social situations.
• 4.3.A.2 Social influence theory proposes that social pressure to behave or think in certain ways can be normative or informational.
• 4.3.A.3 Persuasion refers to the techniques applied to convince the self or others of particular ideas, actions, or beliefs.
  • 4.3.A.3.i Persuasion can depend on the route to persuasion. The elaboration likelihood model outlines two main routes to persuasion: central and peripheral. The halo effect is an example of a peripheral route to persuasion.
  • 4.3.A.3.ii Persuasion can depend on how information is presented, as demonstrated by the foot-in-the-door and the door-in-the-face techniques.
• 4.3.A.4 Research on conformity clarifies the conditions that strengthen the likelihood of people adhering to unspoken rules, norms, or expectations.
• 4.3.A.5 Research on obedience clarifies the conditions that strengthen the likelihood of people complying with the directives of an authority figure.

Learning Objective 4.3.B: Explain how being in a group can affect an individual’s behavior and mental processes.

• 4.3.B.1 Cultural phenomena such as individualism, collectivism, and multiculturalism can influence how one perceives and behaves towards oneself and others.
• 4.3.B.2 Being a member of a group can influence how one behaves or experiences mental processes via group polarization, groupthink, diffusion of responsibility, social loafing, and deindividuation.
• 4.3.B.3 Performing a mental or physical behavior in front of a group can lead to social facilitation.
• 4.3.B.4 People often overestimate the levels to which others agree with them, known as the false consensus effect.
• 4.3.B.5 Superordinate goals serve to unite disparate groups under a common goal and help reduce negative affect and stereotyping among groups. Social traps occur when individuals do not unite and act in their own self-interest to the detriment of the group.
• 4.3.B.6 Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychologists study how people perform in the workplace. I/O psychologists study best practices in management of work, relationships among people working together or for a common company or program, and how people feel about work (burnout).

Learning Objective 4.3.C: Explain how prosocial behavior affects behavior and mental processes.

• 4.3.C.1 Altruism refers to selfless behavior, but some researchers suggest that people act in prosocial ways due to incurring social debt. The social reciprocity norm and the social responsibility norm explain this type of behavior.
• 4.3.C.2 The bystander effect demonstrates that situational and attentional variables predict whether someone is likely to help another person.

Learning Objective 4.5.A: Explain how the social-cognitive theory of personality defines and assesses personality.

• 4.5.A.1 According to social-cognitive theory, reciprocal determinism shapes personality. Reciprocal determinism explores self-concept (how one views themselves and in relation to others) and how self-efficacy and self-esteem both contribute to self-concept.

Learning Objective 4.5.B: Explain how trait theories of personality define and assess personality.

• 4.5.B.1 Trait theories of personality conclude that personality involves a set of enduring characteristics that lead to typical responses to stimuli.
• 4.5.B.2 The Big Five theory of personality proposes that traits of agreeableness, openness to experience, extraversion, conscientiousness, and emotional stability make up one’s personality. These traits are measured by specialized personality inventories that use factor analysis to organize item responses.

Learning Objective 4.6.A: Explain how theories about motivation apply to behavior and mental processes.

• 4.6.A.1 Some theories about motivation focus on behavior and mental processes that seek to address physical needs and desires such as drive-reduction theory and arousal theory. Drive-reduction theory addresses how certain behaviors help maintain homeostasis while arousal theory addresses how people seek an optimal level of arousal when they behave (as demonstrated by the Yerkes-Dodson Law).
• 4.6.A.2 Self-determination theory proposes that people are motivated by intrinsic (internal) or extrinsic (external) motivations. Incentive theory explores the role of rewards (an extrinsic motivation) in motivating behavior.
• 4.6.A.3 Many non-human animals are motivated by instincts (innate, typically fixed patterns of behavior in animals in response to certain stimuli). Humans do not seem to demonstrate instinctual behavior or mental processes.
• 4.6.A.4 Lewin’s motivational conflicts theory proposes that choices create conflicts one must resolve as the basis of motivation. The type of conflicts faced include approach-approach, approach-avoidance, and avoidance-avoidance.
• 4.6.A.5 Sensation-seeking theory proposes that one’s level of need for varied or novel experiences is the basis of motivation. The types of sensation seeking are experience seeking, thrill or adventure seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility.